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The Virginia Journal of Science

Volume 10 (New Series), 1959

EDITORIAL BOARD

Robert T. Brumfield, Farmville . . . Editor

Mary E. Humphreys, Staunton . Associate Editor

Charles F. Lane, Farmville . Managing Editor

Lee S. Harrow, Richmond . Advertising Manager

SECTION EDITORS

Carl W. Allen, Blacksburg . Agricultural Science

Irving G. Foster, Lexington . Astronomy, Mathematcis and Physics

P. Arne Hansen, College Park, Md . Bacteriology

Walter S. Flory, Jr., Boyce . Biology

Merle A. Kise, Norfolk Chemistry

fames P. Patton, Richmond . Education

Robert M. Hubbard, Charlottesville . Engineering

Bruce W. Nelson, Blacksburg . Geology

W. Parker Anslow, Jr., Charlottesville . Medical Science

Cyril R. Mill, Richmond . Psychology

Caroline Gambrill, Waynesboro . . . Science Teachers

C. Y. Kramer, Blacksburg . . . Statistics

Published by The Virginia Academy of Science

i

CONTENTS

No. 1, January, 1959

Edwin Morris Betts . 1

Errors Associated with Process Adjustments — J. Edward

Jackson, Richard A. Freund and William G. Howe . 3

Heliscus Tentaculus, n. sp. An Aquatic Hyphomycete —

Clyde J. Umphlett . 27

Skin and Hair Follicle Development in Dairy Goats —

Lubow A. Margolena . 33

News and Notes . 48

No. 2, April, 1959

Characters Differentiating Common Morning-Glories

Occurring in Virginia — Robert J. Knight, III . 63

A Study of the Chlorophyta of the James River Basin,

Virginia — Bernard Woodson, Jr . 70

News and Notes . 83

Program of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Meeting of the

Virginia Academy of Science . . . 101

No. 3, July, 1959

Ginkgo Bihloha L: Historical Summary and Bibliography —

Alicelia Hoskins Franklin . 131

A Preliminary Report on an Occurrence of Campostoma Anomalum (Rafinesque) in the Yadkin River Drainage System — B. J. Abbott . 177

The Tube Precipitation Technique as applied to the Study of Serological Relationships among

Crayfishes — Rose Mary Johnson . 181

The In Vitro Effects of X-Radiation on Human White Blood Cells — Samuel P. Maroney, Jr . . . 186

News and Notes . 193

ii

bo^, 7'i

\I%I

'y), S/

lO

IC^K\c;

' No. 4, September, 1959

Proceedings for the Year 1958-59

Minutes of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Meeting,

May 6, 7, 8, 9, 1959

Detailed Table of Contents . 212

SUBJECT INDEX

Adiantum . . 133

Amoenitatum exoticarum . 137

Astacidae . 181

Awards

Academy’s Distinguished Service . 217

Bacteriology Section in Microbiology . 231

J. Shelton Horsley . 217

George Washington Engineering . 231

Baiera . 132

Bequest, Form of . 351

Blood Cells, Effects of X-Radiation on, . . . . . 186

Brontosaurus . 131

Cambarus . 181-184

C. hartonii bartonii . 181

C. bartonii robustus . 181, 182

C. bartonii sciotensis . 181

C. longulus longulus . . 181

C. longulus longirostris . 181

C. montanus acuminatus . 181, 183

Campostoma anomalum . 177, 178, 180

C. a. anomalum . . 177

m

C. a. kanawhanum . 177

C. a. roanokense . 177, 180

C. a. virginianum . 177

Calystegia . 63, 65

C. tomentosa . 65, 67

Carya cathayensis . 135

Cephalotaxus . 139

Cherax . 181

Chlorophyta . 70

James River, species of . 78

Committees . 209

Local Arrangements . 211

President’s Advisory . 209

Committee Reports

Education . 364

Flora . 234

Journal . 224

Jxmior Academy . 225

Long Range Planning . 224

Place of Meeting for 1961 . 234

Research . 224

Resolutions . 235

Scholarship . 234

Science Talent Search . 231

Contributors, Notice to . Inside Back Cover

Convolvulaceae . 63

Convolvulus . 63, 65

C. arvensis . 65, 67

iv

C. sepium . 63, 65, 67

C. spithamaeus . 63, 65, 67

C. Purshianus . 63, 65, 67

Crayfishes, Serological Relationships among . 181

Serological comparisons among . 183

Council, Membership of . 209

Diplodocus . 131

Errors Associated with Process Adjustments . 3

Euastacus . 181

Fagus grandifolia . 27, 31

Financial Statement, Journal . 223

Follicle, Development in Goats . 33

Ginkgo hiloha . 131-140

Bibliography on, . 140-176

var. fastigata . 139

var. macrophylea laciniata . 139

variegata . . : . 139

Ginkgoaceae . 139

Ginkgoales . . 139

Heliscus tentacidus . 27, 29, 31

H. aquaticus . 30

H. longibrachiatus . 30, 31

H. stellatus . 30, 31

Ipomoea . 65, 67

I. hederacea . 65, 68

1. lacunosa . 66, 68

I. pandurata . 65, 66

1. purpurea . 65, 68

James River Basin, Chlorophyta of the . 70

V

Mantissa plant arum . 138

Membership

Applieation for . 351

List of . 321

Memorial

Edwin Morris Betts . 1

Metasequoia . 134

Minutes

Academy . 216

Conference . 216

Council . 83, 193, 214, 217

Section . 236

Morning Glories . 63

Key to Virginia Species of . 66

News and Notes . 48, 83, 196

Nothotaxus . 135

Officers, 1958-1959 . 102

1959-1960 . 20£

Orconectes . 181, 182, 184

O. immunis . 181

O. juvenalis . 182

O. nais . 181

O. propinquis . 181

Pacifastacus . 181, 182, 184

P. trowhridgii . 182

Parastacidae . 181

Platanus occidentalis . 27, 31

President’s Message . 46

vi

Procambarus . 181, 182, 184

P. blandingii acutus . 181

P. clarkii . 181

Proceedings (1958-1959) . 20£

Contents . . 212

Program — 37th Annual Meeting . 101

37th Junior Academy of Science Annual Meeting . 105

Pseudolarix . 135

Psychological Research in Virginia . 91

Quamoclit pennata . . 65

. coccinea . 65, 67

Research Committee Notice . 49

Salisburia adiantifolia . 138

Secretary-Treasurer, Report of . 220

Section News . . 49, 86, 195

Sections

Agriculture . . . 49, 86, 195, 236

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics . 198, 244

Bacteriology . 51, 199, 254

Biology . . . 51, 199, 256

Chemistry . 53, 87, 201, 265

Education . 274

Engineering . 55, 87, 203, 277

Geology . . . 58, 89, 289

Medical Sciences . 298

Psychology . . . . . 89, 203, 305

Science Teachers . 314

Statistics . . . 61, 97, 207, 316

Sequoia . 133

Tabulation of Registration . 222

Taxus . 139

Teacher Scholarships . 231

Torreya . 139

Torreya grandis . 135

X-Radiation, Effects on Blood Cells . 186

AUTHOR INDEX

Abbott, B. J . 177

Franklin, Aliceha Hoskins . 131

Freund, Richard A . 3

Howe, William G . 3

Jackson, J. Edward . 3

Johnson, Rose Mary . 181

Knight, Robert J., Ill . 63

Margolena, Lubow A . 33

Maroney, Samuel P., Jr. . 186

Umphlett, Clyde J . 27

Woodson, Bernard, Jr . 70

Till

S’ or, 13 , V5j

Vol. 10, New Series

January, 1959

No. 1

No. 1

VoL. 10, New Series January, 1959

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

Published Four Times a Year In January, April, July, and September, by The Virginia Academy of Science

Printed by The Bassett Printing Corporation, Bassett, Virginia CONTENTS

Pages

Edwin Morris Betts . 1

Errors Associated With Process Adjustments —

J. Edward Jackson, Richard A. Freund and

William G. Howe . 3

Heliscus Tentaculus, n. sp. An Aquatic Hyphomycete —

Clyde J. Umphlett . 27

Skin and Hair Follicle Development in Dairy Goats —

Lubow a. Margolena . 33

News and Notes . 48

EDITORIAL BOARD

Robert T. Brumfield, Editor Mary E. Humphreys, Associate Editor Charles F. Lane, Managing Editor Lee S. Harrow, Advertising Manager

Section Editors

Carl W. Allen Walter S. Flory, Jr. Robert M. Hubbard Cyril R. Mill

Irving G. Foster Merle A. Kise Bruce W. Nelson Caroline Gambrill

P. Arne Hansen James P. Patton W. Parker Anslow, Jr. C. Y. Kramer

Entered as second-class matter, at the post office at Bassett, Virginia, and Farmville, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1897. Subscription $3.00 per volume. Published four times a year: in January, April, July, and September, by the Virginia Academy of Science at Farmville, Va.

Mailed March 3, 1959

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

VoL. 10, New Series January, 1959 No. 1

EDWIN MORRIS BETTS 1892-1958

Edwin Morris Betts, Professor of Biology at the University of Virginia, died September 27, 1958 in Charlottesville at the age of 65 years. He was born November 2, 1892 in Raleigh, N. C., son of William C. Betts and Mary Williams Betts. He was graduated from Oxford High School at Ox¬ ford, N. C., from the Durham Conservatory of Music and received the Ph.B. degree from Elon College in 1919, the M. S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Virginia in 1924 and 1927, respectively. During the summer of 1924 he studied at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Wood’s Hole, Mass.

Upon graduation from Elon College he became chairman of the Depart¬ ment of Music there but his interest in plants led him to resign this posi¬ tion to attend the University of Virginia. In 1927, he became Assistant Professor of Biology at the University of Virginia; in 1946, Associate Pro¬ fessor; and in 19o0, Professor.

While Mr. Betts’ interests were broad, he derived more genuine pleas¬ ure in the classroom than in any of his many endeavors. He was an excell¬ ent teacher and although an exacting one, his students always knew pre¬ cisely what was expected of them. His personality and the interest that he demonstrated in each student won for him an enviable measure of re¬ spect and admiration.

During the early years of Mr. Betts’ teaching his research interests were mainly directed toward the ascomycetes and somewhat later toward meg- asporogenesis and megagametogenesis in the angiosperms. His broadening interests in the flowering plants led him into a study of the ornamental plants in the vicinity of Charlottesville, and subsequently to the history of the introduction of many of them. Since Thomas Jefferson was respon¬ sible for many of these introductions and so many references to plants were included in his various journals, it was a natural sequence that Mr. Betts’ interest in Mr. Jefferson’s garden and farm should follow. With Mrs, W. Allan Perkins he published “J^ff^^^son’s Flower Garden” in 1941, and three years later The American Philosophical Society sponsored publica¬ tion of his “Jefferson’s Garden Book” which was rated one of ten best non-fiction books of 1944. In recognition of the scholarlv nature of this

2 The Virginia Journal of Science | Janiiarv

book Mr. Betts was awarded the first Phi Beta Kappa Prize by the Uni¬ versity of Virginia Chapter and was made an honorary member of the Society. A Guggenheim Foundation grant enabled Mr. Betts to take time from his teaching to edit “Jefferson’s Farm Book” which was also pub¬ lished by the American Philosophical Society in 1953. At the time of his death he was editing a volume including Jefferson’s letters to his daugh¬ ters and their children.

Mr. Betts’ familiarity with Jeffersonian documents and his intimate know¬ ledge of plants assured his position on the Restoration Committee for Monticello, and his assistance was invaluable in restoring the gardens at the University. He had accumulated an unusually fine collection of old prints and photographs of the University and Monticello, and had plann¬ ed to publish the best of them along with annotated notes in book form.

For five years Mr. Betts spent the summers on Nantucket where he was director of the Natural Science Department of the Nantucket Maria Mitchell Association.

With all of his activities, he maintained an active interest in music. An accomplished musician in his own right, he was at various times organist at Christ’s and St. Paul’s Episcopal Churches, the First Methodist and Westminster Presbyterian Churches.

He was a member of Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi, The Raven Society, Virginia Academy of Science, and the Botanical Society of America, and at one time was Secretary of the General Section of the latter.

Mr. Betts was a scholar and a gentleman, and will long be remembered by his devoted students, his colleagues and friends. He is survived by his widow, the former Miss Mary Hall Stryker; a son, Edwin M. Betts, Jr.; a daughter, Mrs. Hunter C. Lang; and two grandchildren.

— Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. and B. F. D. Runk

1959]

Errors Associated With Process Adjustments

3

ERRORS ASSOCIATED WITH PROCESS ADJUSTMENTS

J. Edward Jackson, Virginia Polytechnic Institute"^

Richard A. Freund and William G. Howe, Eastman Kodak Company

Introduction

In the last decade, many industrial personnel have paid an increasing degree of attention to the probability of making Type I errors (the probability a of rejecting satisfactory material) and Type II errors (the probability p of accepting material which deviates too greatly from some standard level). These people have often found that a knowledge of these two risks is not enough when a choice must be made between two or more alternate methods of control. They also need to know the probability of making a correct process adjustment in order to maintain precise control. To be more specific, once it has been decided that a process is not operating at its standard level, they wish to know the probabilities involved in making adjustments to return it to standard. In general they estimate the actual process level and then use some func¬ tion of the difference between this estimate and the standard value to guide their adjustment. This may result in improvements to the process if the adjustment is made in the right direction and in the right amount. On the other hand, if the correction is in the wrong direction or is much too large, the process will be in a poorer state of control than before. In many cases the state of the process would be improved if, within certain bounds (e.g. a zone of stability), it were unadjusted rather than be in an unstable condition due to repeated adjustments.

The purpose of this paper is to associate a probability, y, with each of the errors of adjustment. Since no adjustments will be made unless the process goes out of control, this amounts to the decomposition of the power curve (1 — p) into the following four components:

yi — the probability of making an undercorrection

y2 — the probability of making a helpful overcorrection

y3 — the probabihty of making a harmful overcorrection

y4 — the probability of making an adjustment in the wrong direction.

^Sponsored in part by the Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy : Contract Number: NONR-2352(01). Task Order NR 042-019 with the Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute. Reproduction in whole or in part is permitted for any purpose of the United States Government,

4

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

If p denotes the probability of failing to detect trouble for a given process level, then yi + 72 + 73 74 “ ^ probabilities associated

with adjustments to correct the trouble. 71 and 72 represent the prob¬

abilities of improvements to the process while 73 and 74 represent the probabilities of the process being made worse. Unless the control limits are extremely tight, as would occur when one is willing to increase the

a risk to reduce the fi risk, the latter two errors will be small.

The Gamma Risks

To state the problem in its simplest terms, let us assume that a process is being monitored by means of a eontrol chart for averages. Whenever the product is sampled and the average of this sample is outside the control limits, an adjustment is made equal to the differenee between the sample average and the standard value. A correet adjust¬ ment will be made only when the estimate (the sample average) and the true (aetual) process level are identical; a situation with a probabihty of zero. As stated above, if an adjustment is to be made, one of the four following situations must oecur:

1) If the adjustment is smaller than necessary, the adjusted process will still be biased on the same side of the standard as before adjust¬ ment, but the bias will be smaller. This will happen when the sample average is outside of the control limits but still lies between the actual process level and the standard so that an adjustment of less than k cr -

is made when the proeess is actually kcr_from standard. The probability of this undercorrection is:

Xj = P 1 M < X < L J M < L J + P 1 < X < M I ^< > LJ

= 0 otherwise

2) If the adjustment is slightly larger than necessary, the adjusted process will then be biased in the opposite direction, but the absolute bias will be smaller and the process will be improved. This will hap¬ pen when the sample average is outside of the control limits and lies between ku- and 2 k (7^ from standard although the true process level

^The following symbols are in standard units (deviations from standard divided by a) :

X— Sample mean IJi=: True process level L 2= Lower control limit L2= Upper control limit

1959] Errors Associated With Process Adjustments 5

is exactly k cr - from standard. The probability of this overcorrection is:

y. = P 1 < X < min (L n) 1 [Jt < I + P 1 max {L , fi) <X < 2fi \ |

2 2

“0 otherwise

3) If the adjustment is enough larger than neeessary, the adjusted process will be more biased, though in the opposite direetion, than it was before adjustment and will be in poorer control. This will happen when the sample average is outside of the control limits and lies more than 2ko- ^ from standard while the actual process level is only ka ^ from

standard. The probability of this overeorrection is:

Xa = P 1 X < min (L^, 2fi) | < 0 } + P { X > max 2fi) | /Lt > 0 |

4) If the adjustment is in the wrong direction, the adjusted process will be more biased than the original one though in the same direction. This will happen when the sample average is outside of the control limits on the opposite side of standard from the true process level. The prob¬ ability of this erroneous adjustment is;

y4=Pl X<LJ jz>0 l + Pl X>LJ |a<0 1

Figure 1 illustrates how, for this particular set of rules for adjust¬ ment, the various gamma risks change as the true process level shifts away from standard. This same information is shown graphically in Figure 2. The three graphs represent control limits of ± , ± 2a-

and ± 3c7^ respectively. The calculations associated with this example

are shown in Part A of the appendix. When the process level coincides with the standard, == y2 = 0 and yg = y^ = -|a. ( yg and are ac¬

tually undefined for the standard level but each approaches «/2 in the limit as ^ approaches zero.) yg and y4 decrease as wider limits are used. It is interesting to note that whereas the ^ risk is reduced by shifting from a 3a- chart to a la- chart (at the price of increasing

the a risk), a process whose true level is a^/2 from standard will be

rejected more often. All of these rejections will result in harmful ad¬ justments (yg and y4 risks) to the process, and thus are apt to magnify the control problem.

It is believed that the basic concepts implict in the study of these gamma risks will apply to a large number of problems. For example.

6

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

Figure 1. Illustration of y values for 2a control charts when X falls outside the upper control hmit.

in control chart analysis, a study of the gamma values might help decide the most appropriate k for ka limits; whether a nm of one, two or more points, or their average must exceed control limits before correc¬ tive action is taken; or whether the corrective action should be the full difference between the sample estimate and standard or some fraction thereof. A number of ground rules for adjusting processes are in use today and a study of their «, and y risks should prove quite enlight¬ ening. Some examples of a few of the procedures encountered in indus¬ try are included in the following section.

Figure 2. Probability curves for case 1.

1959]

Errors Associated With Process Adjustments

7

PROBABILITY

T

\

CONTROL LIMITS t Itr- CONTROL LIMITS +2o-- CONTROL LIMITS

8

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

Examples

The various process control procedures that will be discussed in this section are included primarily to illustrate this y-concept rather than to pass on the merits of these procedures as such. As stated above, there are a large number of problems to which this technique may be applied. In addition to those already mentioned there are such things as the effect of process variability between the time the sample is taken and an adjustment is made, the effect of heterogeneity of variance, condi¬ tional process adjustments (i.e. on the basis of prior adjustments), run theory, etc. Although the computations required for some of these situa¬ tions are complicated, they can be handled with the aid of high-speed computers coupled if necessary with the use of the Monte Carlo tech¬ nique. Some of the simpler examples are given below:

Case 1

The most frequently encountered adjustment procedure is that of cor¬ recting by the full amount of the difference between standard and the sample average when the average exceeds the control limits. This case has been discussed above and the probability curves for 1, 2 and 3 a-

limits are shown in Figure 2. It is often desirable to substitute the actual value of a- for a particular process on the scale for the abscissa

since the curves can then be interpreted in terms of the original units, an important feature as far as the experimenter or control man is con¬ cerned. In certain cases it is helpful to separate into its components,

such as process and measurement variance, and use a scale related to one of these components.

Case 2

One method of reducing the risks of harmful adjustments, while still taking advantage of the benefits of decreased ^ risks, is to make adjust¬ ments whieh are only a fraetion of the differenee between the sample mean and the standard value. The ground rules for this case call for adjustments of one-half the difference between the sample average and standard when averages plot between the control limit and twice the control limit, and for full corrections when an average exceeds twice the control limit. The probability curves for this system are shown in Fig¬ ure 3. The a, /? and risks are unchanged from Case 1. A com¬ parison of the respective la- , 2a- and 3a^ control charts of Figures 2

and 3 will show that ys, the risk of harmful over-adjustment, is reduced appreciably in the region between one-fourth the distance from the mean

Figure 3. Probability curves for case

1959]

Errors Associated With Process Adjustments

9

PROBABILITY

■p

CONTROL LIMITS + lo-^ CONTROL LIMITS ±2cr- CONTROL LIMITS ± So--

10

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

to the control limit and the control limit itself, (e.g. for 2a- limits, this region would go from jcr- to 2a^ ) . This reduction in is accom¬ panied by a corresponding increase in y2* 72 tu^^ is reduced in the

interval between one-half the distance from the mean to the control limit and twice the control limit (e.g. for 2a^ hmits, this region would go

from a- to 4c7^ ) with a corresponding increase in yj. This is often

advantageous in the sense that the process ceases to oscillate as much about the standard, but instead gradually approaches the desired level. The calculations are given in part B of the appendix.

Both cases 1 and 2 are designed for use in those situations in which an assumption of control is reasonable; that is, the process can be expected to run at the standard level subject only to those sources and amounts of variability which are included in the inherent variability term. Whenever the relatively rare event of an assignable cause occurs, the process will be stopped and the assignable cause removed, but as long as the sample averages are inside of the control limits, it is assumed that no assignable causes have entered the system. As processes become more complex, however, it often happens that at least one of a number of possible assignable causes is always present. In effect, the process is never truly in control. For situations like this, it may be desirable to use the system of adjustments described in Case 3.

Case 3

The adjustment procedures for this case call for corrections of one- third the difference between the sample average and standard for aver¬ ages lying between Icr^ and 2a^ ; two-thirds correction for averages lying

between 2cr^ and 3(7^^ ; and full corrections for averages outside 3a- .

The probability curves for this system are shown in Figure 4. The power curve 1—^ is the same as for a standard la^ control chart. Despite

the unusual appearance of these curves, a comparison of this illustration with Figures 2 and 3 will show that this system combines the curves for the lu-, 2a- and 3(7^^ charts and produces even greater reductions

in the risk of overadjustment. The yi risk of underadjustment will be further increased while the low ^ risk of the Icr^ limit situation is

maintained. The calculations are given in part C ot the appendix.

Case 4

This final example is a two-sample situation as contrasted to the single samples involved in cases 1 through 3. For example, in the chemical

1959]

Errors Associated With Process Adjustments

11

Figure 4. Probability curves tor case 3.

laboratory it is of tea found that the total variance includes a large com¬ ponent of analytical variability in addition to the product variability for which the test is being run. Therefore, when an individual analysis is out of control, the problem arises as to whether it is the constituent level or the analysis which is in error, as well as how large an adjust¬ ment is to be made. Naturally, the ratio of , the analytical vari¬ ance, to cTp , the product variance, varies considerably among the many

chemicals to be analyzed. The adjustment procedure to be discussed in this example is as follows;

Analyze the sample.

A. If the result is in control, assume the process to be in control with respect to this constituent.

B. If the result is out of control, reanalyze and plot the average of the two analyses.

1. If the average is in control, assume the process to be in con¬ trol with respect to this constituent.

2. If the average is out of control, adjust the level of the con¬ stituent by an amount equal to the difference between the sample average and the standard.

12

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

The control limits for the first analysis should be a multiple of + (7^ while those for the average should be a multiple of

y^p + cr^/2 . To make the technique as simple as possible, a satis¬ factory single Emit, k y^p + <7^ , was used for both charts by com¬ promising on the risks involved (i.e., a and /? differ for the first sam¬ ple and the average of the two samples). The risks which have to be considered are described below. An asterisk after a symbol indicates that the risk is a function of both the first and second analyses.

a — probability of a reanalysis when the chemical concentration is at its standard level.

*

^2

Ts

*

■)'4

— probability of a process adjustment when the concentration is at its standard level.

— probability of failing to call for a reanalysis when the concentra¬ tion is actually k-sigma from standard.

— probability of failing to make an adjustment when the concentra¬ tion is k-sigma from standard.

— probability of making an underadjustment in which the concen¬ tration will still be on the same side of the standard as it was before the correction was applied, although the situation is im¬ proved.

— probability of making an overadjustment in which the concentra¬ tion will now be on the other side of the standard but not as far from standard as it was before.

~ probabiEty of making an overadjustment to the extent that the concentration is now farther from standard in the opposite direc¬ tion than before the change was made.

— probability of making an adjustment in the wrong direction so that the concentration is now farther from standard on the same side than before the correction was made.

These individual terms can be reduced to the four basic probabilities.

1 — ^ = continuing to process without making a second analysis ,

2 — yg* — ^ == reanalyzing but not making a process adjustment ,

3 — y* + 72“ making a process adjustment which improves the

process ,

4 — y* + y* — making a process adjustment which harms the process.

Figure 5. Probability curves for case 4.

Control limits = ±: 3.0\/(7^ + (Jj

1959]

Errors Associated With Process Adjustments

13

K3

PROBABILITY

Control limits = zb 15

[January

14

The Virginia Journal of Science

PROBABILITY

1959]

Errors Associated With Process Adtustments

15

Figure 5 shows the values of the various risks of error for three com¬ binations of (cTp + crp using control limits of db 3 Th®

three combinations are: 1) lOo^ = Up ; 2) 3) (1/10)

cr^ ^ (jp . Figure 6 shows these same risks using 1.5 Jo-'^ + con- tool limits. The scales for Figures 5 and 6 are given in terms of both and Up . The latter will be of most interest to the chemist. The calculations are given in part D of the appendix.

Reference

Pearson, Karl. “Tables for Statisticians and Biometricians , Parts I and 11”, Cambridge University Press, London (1930 and 1931),

16

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

A. Formulas for case 1: Let

Appendix -

std = center line on control chart j _ lower control limit — std

upper control limit — std

JLo — - — — - -

population mean — std

X = sample mean in standard unit f(x) = normal distribution function

= 1

_lx2

■/

so that / f(x)dx

can be obtained in any table of normal deviates.

OC

a = P 1 X < Lj I ft = 0 f + P 1 X > I u = 0 \ - j f (x) dx + / f (x) dx

L,

^ ^ ^ i ^ I i ^ > L2 I I = 1 - f f (x) dx f f (x) dx

L2-P

The limits of integration for yj, y2> and yg, which vary with n, are shown in Table 1.

= P 1 /I < X < LJ ^ < L J + P 1 L2 < X < /I I ^ I

= 0 otherwise

= P \ 2p < X< min(L^ ,ft) | ft < Lj/2 I + P | max(L2 ,fi) < X < 2ft | ft > L2/2 I = 0 otherwise

*Only in^ualities are shown in most of these probability statements because the control situations result in discontinuous functions. The probability of these equalities is zero.

1959]

Errors Associated With Process Adjustments

17

I P 1 X < min(Lj, 2fi) | (i < 0 \ -f P 1 X > max (L^ , 2fi) | // > 0 (

j = P I X < LJ /z > 0 i + P j X >LJ < 0 i

j!

oo

= J Hx)dx ficO

^1-fI

= / f (x) dx fi > 0 .

— oo

B. Formulas for case 2:

! Lj, L2, /X, X and f(x) are defined the same as in case 1. a, (S and y4 are determined in the same way as in case 1. The limits 1 of integration for the remaining y — risks are shown in Table I.

Xj == P I min(2Lj,/a) <X<Lj|/a<Lji + Pl2/i<X<Lj|Lj</i< Lj/ 2 |

+ PIL^<1<2ii\ h^/2<^<L^ ! + PI L2<X<max(2L2,(i m<M !

= 0 otherwise

y2 = P 1 2/i < X < min(2Lj,i[x) | /r < f + P 1 2Lj < X < 2/i | < ft < L^/2 I

+ Pi 4ft<X<Lj 1 Ly2</i<Lj/4 I + Pi L2 <X<4ft I L2/4<ft<L2/2 I

+ P 1 2/i < X < 2L2 I L2/ 2 < ft < L2 I + P 1 max ( 2L2 , /x) < X < 2ft | L2 < fi I = 0 otherwise

Xj = P I X < min (2Lj,2/i) | ft <Lj/2 f + P 1 X <min (Lj,4ft) | Lj/2 < ft < 0 |

+ P 1 X > max (L^, 4ft) | 0 < ft < L2/2 j + P 1 X > max (2L2,2ft) [ L2/2 <ft } .

18

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

C. Formuas for case 3;

Li, L2, fXy X, f(x), a , fi , and are the same as in cases 1 and 2. The limits of integration for the remaining y — risks are shown in Table 1. For the example given in case 3, L| = —a and

Lj = + CT.

Xj = P 1 min(3Lj,,i) < X < L J n < 2L J + P S 3/X/2 < X < Lj [ 2Lj < ^ < 4L/3 I + P i min(3f<,2L,) < X < Lj [ 4Lj/3 < n < L^/S i

+ P t Lj < X < min(3(i, 2L2) 1 Lj/S < /i < 4Lj/3 !

+ P 1 < X < 3,i/2 1 4L2/3 < M < 2L2 ! + P ! Lj < X < maxOLj,//) j 2^ < /x I

= 0 otherwise

y2 = Pl2fx<X</i I ft< 3Lj i + P 1 2^ < X < max{3f(/2,3Lj) [ 3Lj < /r < 3Lj/2 f + P I 3Lj < X < 3^!/2 1 3L,/2 < ft < 4L,/3 i

+ P i max(3^ ?3Lj) < X < 2Lj 1 4L^/3 < ^ < 2Lj/3 i + P t 2L^ < X < 3f( 1 2L,/3 < (X < Lj/3 i + P t 6jx < X < Lj [ L,/3 < ii <L^/6 1 + P t < X < 6fi I L^/6 < /X < L^/S 1 + P t 3m < X < 2L2 1 L^/S < fx < 2^/3 I + P 1 2L2 < X < min(3M,3L2) | 2^/3 <n< 4^/3 !

+ P t 3m/2 < X < 1 4L2/3 < /X < 3L2/2 1

+ P lmin(3M/2,3L2) < X < 2m 1 3L2/2 < m < SL^ i + P 1 m < X < 2m | SL^ < m !

= 0 otherwise

=s P 1 X < min (3Lj, 2/z) | /z < I + P 1 X < min(2Lj, 3/li) | < /z < Lj/3 I

+ P 1 X < min (Lj,6/li) | Lj/3</!z<0| +P1X> max(L2,6/Lt) | 0 < /z < ^

1959]

Errors Associated With Process Adjustments

19

+ P 1 X > max(2L2,3/i) | L^/S < /x < f + P 1 X > max (SL^, 2/x) | \ .

D. P'ormiilas for case 4;

Let: = analytical variability

<7p = process variability

^T “ — total variability since analytical and

process variabilities are independent

p— J{a^ + (Tp ) = correlation between first and ^ second analysis

q = 0-2 /a “ == ratio of process to analytical variability

V =: population mean

ai = result of first analysis

a2 = result of second analysis

a = ( aj + a2 ) /2

Xi = result of first analysis in standard units Rj — std

=

_ aT — std.

X = a in standard units, i.e.: / 2 2

^ = population mean in standard units Li = lower control limit in standard imits L2 — upper control limit in standard units f(x)=: normal deviates as used in cases 1, 2, and 3.

g(a) ,a) =

I

i'? -2(.

- v) (a - u)

2(a - +2(t2

e

(7 2 +a2

20

The Virginia Journal of Science [January

= joint distribution of the first analysis and the average of both analyses.

To simplify the computations, let:

y =

so that the resultant distribution is:

- ^

^ 2ryi-a,^' e ^

1

y^-26Xyz +z^

_

which is tabulated in Karl Pearson’s ‘"Tables for Statisticians and Biometricians.”

Type 1 Errors

n = probability of an imnecessarv analysis: same as in cases 1, 2 and 3.

rt* = probability of an unnecessary process adjustment:

= P 1 < L,, X < L J /X = 0 I + P 1 < Lj, X > I /i = 0 I

-I- P 1 > L2, X<Lj 1 /x = 0|+Pl Xj> L2, X > L2 I /X = 0 I

L,

J j g(y,z)dzdy + / / g(y,z)dzdy

1959]

Errors Associated With Process Adjustments

21

oo _ 1 oo oo

/ f g(y,z)dzdy + / / g(y,z)dzdy

CO

Type 11 Errors

^ = probability of not reanalyzing: same as cases 1, 2, and 3. = probability of not adjusting process:

= P 1 Lj < < LJ /I 1 + P 1 < X < I /z I

+ P 1 Xj > L2, Lj <X< L^ \

^2-1^ L,-m

-/ / g(y,z)dzdy +

CO

Lj-/x

(O

f /

g(y,z)dzdy

(O

Errors of Adjustment

y* = Probability of making an under-adjustment on the same side of the standard

= P 1 X^ < Lp jLt<X<L^l/z<Lj|-t-PlXj > L2, /z < X < Lj I /z < \

-I- P { Xj < Lj, L2 < X < fz 1 /z > L2 1 + P 1 X^ > L2, L2 < X < /z I /z > L2 I

= 0 otherwise

= y g(y,z)dzdy / f ^ g(y, z)dzdy /z <

u-/

22

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

X2

^ 0

I f

g(y,z)ciz(iy

00 0

/ /

g(y,z)dzdy M ^

(D Cl>

* = probability of making an underadjustment on the opposite side of the standard

= P i Xj < Lj, 2m < X < min (Lj,g) I g < Lj/2 S + P I Xj > Lj, 2m < X < mii(Lj,M) 1 M < Li/2 1 + P I Xj <Lj, max(L2,M) <X<2m | M > ^2/2!

+ P 1 Xj > Lj, maxlLjjM < X < 2m I M > L2/2 j

= 0 otherwise

=/ /

g(y, z)dzdy

^ f

r g(y,z)d-zdy

M < Lj

-00 fl

To

J

Lj-m

J

y-

CO

Li-M Lj-m =/ /■"

g(y, z)dzdy

00

• /

T" g(y,z)dzdy

J

L^ < M < L/2

—00 ^

TJ-

Lj-m

y

lo

L^-m M

= / f

g(y,z)dzdy

CO

* /

y

/ g(y,z)dzdy

Lj/2 < M < Lj

L,-m

CO

J

Lj-m

J

Lj-m

CO

Li“^ fi

=/ r

g(y, z)dzdy

00

* /

y

1 g(y,z)dzdy

Lj < M

—00 0

Lj-m

J

0

1959]

Errors Associated With Process Adjustments

23

/g* = Probability of making an overadjustment

= P 1 < Lj, X < min(Ljy

2fJL) 1 /X < 0 1

+ P 1 Xj^ > X < min(Lj^,

2fx) 1 /X < 0 !

+ P \ X^ < Lj, X >max(L2,

2/x) 1 M > 0 !

+ P 1 Xj > L2, X >max(L2,

2m) 1 M > 0 i

00

= f f ^ g(y,z)dzcly

• /

/"

g(y,z)dzdy

fJ- < Lj/2

•/ %/

—00 —00

Lj-m

— 00

Lj-M Lj-/x

00

Lx-

= r r " g(y,z)dzdy

* /

f ^

g(y,z)dzdy

Lj/2<^<0

J J

—00 —00

Lj-m

— 00

Lj-fi

/> ^

00

00

= / g(y,z)dzdy

J J

* /

/

g(y,z)dzdy

0 < ja < L2/2

L^-fx

~or

l^-m

“S5“

00

00

= / / g(y,z)dzdy

* /

/

g(y,z)dzdy

/X > L2/2

%J %/

-00 jJi

Lj-m

Ct)

- Probability of making an adjustment in the wrong direction = P i Xj < Lj, X > LJ p < 0 ! + P I Xj > Lj, X > m fx < 0 ! = P ! Xj < Lj, X < L, I ,x > 0 1 + P 1 Xj > Lj, X < L, I /X > 0 !

24

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

oo oo

/ / g(y,z)dzdy + / /

I..-/

-I f

0)

g(y,z)dzdy +

-OO — OO

,z)dzdy

CO

r r—

J J ^ g(y,z)dzdy

g < 0

// > 0

# These risks do not exist for these values of [i.

26

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

Case 3

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

yi

Lower

Limit

Upper

Limit

^2

Lower

Limit

Upper

Limit

Lower

Limit

^3

Upper

Limit

— oo

3L,

Lj-^i

0

0

ft

P

~oo

3L,

2L,

3L,-ft

3Lj— /i

ft

P

“OO

3L^/2

Lj-(i

p/2

ft/2

ft

P

■—00

3L/2

4Lj/3

Lj-n

p/2

ft/ 2

34-/1

3Lj

-P

■—00

4L/3

L^-p

2Lj-ft

2Li-ft

3Lj-/i

3Lj

“P

“OO

2Lj/3

Lj-fx

2Lj-/t

2Lj-ft

2ft

^2p

“OO

2L/3

L,/3

Lj-m

2ft

2ft

24-ft

2Li

“P

— OO

Lj/3

L,/6

#

#

Lj-ft

5ft

5p

“OO

L/6

0

#

#

#

#

P

“OO

0

L/6

#

#

#

#

DO

L^-ft

L,/6

L^/S

#

#

5/1

L^-ft

00

5ft

L^/S

2L2/3

2jx

4-ft

24-ft

2ft

DO

24-

2^/3

2Lj— ft

Lj-ft

2ft

24-/2

DO

2ft

L,

4L2/3

24-/1

Lj-ft

34-/2

24-/2

DO

34-1

4^/3

3L2/,2

ft/ 2

4-/X

34-/X

ft/ 2

DO

34-1

3L,/2

2L,

ft/2

Lj-ft

ft

fi/2

DO

ft

2L,

3L2

SLj-ft

Lj-ft

ft

DO

ft

3L

00

0

Lj-ft

ft

0

DO

ft

# These risks do not exist for these values of

1959] Heliscus tentaculus 27

HELISCUS TENTACULUS, n. sp., AN AQUATIC HYPHOMYCETE’

Clyde J. UmphletC Virginia Polytechnic Institute

During a recent preliminary survey of the aquatic Hyphomycete flora of Montgomery County, Virginia, (Umphlett, 1957) an undescribed fun¬ gus was found growing on submerged, decaying leaves of Platanus occi- dentalis and Fagus grandifolia. The fungus was found in two collections made in Januarv, 1957, and was not observed in collections made at any other time during the year. Growth of the organism on the leaves was rather sparse. Usually only about a dozen sporophores were seen on any single leaf. On Platanus growth was restricted to the petiole, but on Fagus the sporophores appeared also along the margins of the blade.

Heliscus Tentaculus, sp. nov.

Fungus aquaticus submersus, mycelio ramoso, septato. Sporophoro hya¬ line, 38-100/a longo, 3-4/a lato, terminente in catervam phiialidum, 26-52/a longo, 3-5/a lato. Phialosporo hyaline, aseptato, ramoso, clavata basi, 45- 71/a longa, 1.5-2.0/a lata ad radices, 5-7/a lata ad apicem, et tribus tenui- bus ramosis emergentibus simul ad apicem; liberate post fabricatum sep¬ tum ad basium spori.

In foliis putrescentibus Platanus occidentalis in Mill Creek, Montgom- erv County, Virginia.

Heliscus Tentaculus, n. sp.

Submerged aquatic fungus with branched, septate mycelium. Sporo¬ phores hyaline, 38-100/a long, 3-4/a broad, branched near the distal end to form one or more groups of phialides, 26-52/a long, 3-5/a broad. Phialo- spores hyaline, unicellular, branched, each consisting of an elongate, clav- ate basal portion, 45-71/a long, 1.5-2.0/a broad at the point of attachment to the phialide, broadening to 5-7/a at the apex, and three slender diver¬ gent branches, 33-43/a long, arising simultaneously at points equidistant from one another on the broadest portion of the apex; spores produced in basipetal succession from the phialides; liberated by disarticulation at a septum formed at the point of attachment of the mature spore to the phialide.

1 This paper constitutes a portion of a thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Botany.

-Present address: Botany Department, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.

28

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

I

1959!

Heliscus tentaculus

29

On submerged, decaying leaves of Plantus occidental is in Mill Creek, Montgomery County, Virginia.

As in other aquatic Hyphomycetes the mycelium of Heliscus tentaculus deyelops within the yascular systems of the submerged leayes which serye as its substratum. The sporophores arise from these internal hyphae, pene¬ trate the leaf tissues and protrude at right angles into the water. The sporophores with developing phialospores are very conspicuous by their length. The combined length of the sporophore, phialide, and phialospore may be as much as 225/x in which case the phialospore is extended into the water at a distance considerably greater than the comparable struct¬ ures of other species observed growing on the same substratum.

The phialospore is initiated as a slender, hypha-like extension, 1. 5-2.0^ thick, from the apex of the phialide (figs. 1-4). As apical elongation of the extension continues the end of this structure becomes noticeably swoll¬ en, and soon the spore primordium has become clavate (fig. 5). When the clavate primordium has attained its mature length of 45-71/x, elonga¬ tion of this l3asal portion ceases. Then three divergent protuberances arise simultaneously at points equidistant from one another on the swollen apex (fig. 6). Simultaneous elongation of these slender protuberances produces the three divergent branches of the mature phialospore (fig. 7). When the spore is fullv mature, a septum forms at its base and liberation oc¬ curs by a gradual disarticulation at this septum.

In some instances phialides were observed which had produced normal spores previouslv, but which gave rise subsequentiv to abnormal struct-

Explanation of Figures

Figs. 1-7. Heliscus tentaculus, showing spore development. 1. Tip of a sporophore with two phialides; on left is a clavate spore primordium; on right is a primordium just beginning to develop, 11:50 A.M. 2. Initiation of three branches of spore at left, 12:05 P.M. 3. Same spores at 1:05 P.M. 4. Spore on left is being liberated; primordium on right continues elongation, 4:00 P. M. 5. Primordium on right is now clavate, 4:30 P.M. 6. Branches developing on spore at right, 5:30 P.M. 7. Spore on right is mature, septum has formed at base; primordium on left is elongating, 6:15 P.M. Figs. 8-10. Heliscus tentaculus. 8. Tip of sporophore branch showing three phialides with spores each of which is in a different stage of development. 9. Abnormal spore with only two divergent branches. 10. Abnormally functioning phialide producing a bent hypha-like structure instead of a typical phialospore. All figs, from hanging-drop cultures on bits of Platanus occidentalis leaves. All figs, drawn with the aid of a camera lucida. All X670.

30

The Virginia Journal of Science | January

ures. In one case a spore with only two divergent branches was pro¬ duced (fig. 9.). This spore was liberated in the normal manner. In anoth¬ er case the structure produced did not differentiate into the typical clav- ate basal portion of a spore, but rather it had the appearance of a slen¬ der, bent hypha growing from the tip of the phialide (fig. 10). This struc¬ ture was not observed to separate from the phialide.

Repeated attempts to isolate this fungus in pure culture were unsuc¬ cessful. The phialospores germinated readily in water, but no germination was observed on the malt agar medium employed successfully for isola¬ tion of other species of aquatic Hyphomycetes. In water a slender germ tube was produced from the base of the spore and from anv or all of the divergent branches.

The present fungus is placed in the genus Heliscus Saccardo with some reservation. Ingold (1942) and Ingold and Cox (1957) have described three species of aquatic Typhomycetes which they refer to that genus. One, H. aquaticus Ing., conforms well to the original generic description of Saccardo (1880) in that sporodochia are formed and the spores are phialospores. However, the two other species, H. longibmchiatus Ing., and H. stellatus Ing. and Cox, are referred to the same genus on the basis of developmental and morphological similarities of the phialospores. Sporo¬ dochia have not been observed in either of the latter two species. Like¬ wise, in H tentaculiis sporodochia are unknown. Spore development and morphology are essentially the same in this species as in the three Brit¬ ish species. In all the species the spores develop from phialides, and at maturity the spores of each have three protuberances at the apex of a first-formed basal portion. Ingold and Cox (1957) suggest that it may become necessary to segregate H. stellatus and H. longibrachiatus from H. aquaticus. This author agrees that such a segregation may well prove necessary after further studv of all the species involved, and points out again that the assignment of the fungus described herein to the genus Heliscus is tentative. It appears now, on the basis of their comparative morphology, that if and when a new genus is erected to contain H. longi- hrachiatus and H. stellatus, then H. tentaculus would fit well in that same genus.

Recently Ingold (1958) observed a hyphomycetous fungus growing on submerged leaves in streams in Uganda and Southern Rhodesia. His figures 3E and 3F depict spores verv similar to those produced by the fungus described herein. Ingold stated that he was “almost satisfied” that the spores of his fungus were produced on phialides, and that if this were so, the fungus would be a member of the genus Heliscus. It is possible that we are dealing with the same species.

H. tentaculus mav be separated readily from H. aquaticus. The spores

Heliscus tentaculus

31

1959]

of the latter are multicellular and each spore has three short, blunt pro¬ tuberances in contrast to the long slender branches of the spores of H. tentaculus. The two species differ also in that no sporodochium has been observed for H. tentaculus. The present species is distinct from H. longi- hrachiatus in that the spores of H. tentaculus are always at least twice as long as those of H. longibrachiatus, and in the latter species a single phialide terminates the simple, unbranched sporophore. In H. tentaculus the sporophore is often branched, and each branch may be terminated by more than one phialide (fig. 8). Differences between H. tentaculus and H. stellatus are likewise readily apparent. The three branches of the spore in the latter species are short conical, and of about the same di¬ mensions as the basal portion of the spore, whereas the branches of the spores of H. tentaculus are slender filiform structures much shorter than the basal portion of the spore of which they are parts.

The proposed specific epithet, tentaculus, was suggested by the ten¬ tacle-like appearance of the three divergent branches arising from the apex of the basal portion of the phialospore.

Summary

Heliscus tentaculus, an aquatic Hyphomycete found on submerged, de¬ caying leaves of Platanus occidentalis and Fagus grandifolia in Mont¬ gomery Countv, Virginia, is described. The fungus is characterized by a branched, septate mycelium and hyaline sporophores which may branch at the apex to form one or more groups of phialides. These produce in basipetal succession hyaline, unicellular, elongately clavate phialospores which bear three slender, tentacle-like branches at the swollen apex. The taxonomic status of this fungus and related species relative to the valid- itv of the generic assignments is discussed.

Acknowledgments

Sincere thanks are extended to Prof. W. W. Scott, under whose direc¬ tion this work was carried out, for his help and encouragement, and for his critical reading of the manuscript. Thanks are due also to Dr. A. 1. Suskin for aid in preparation of the Latin diagnosis included in this paper.

Literature Cited

Ingold, C. T. 1942. Aquatic hyphomycetes of decaying alder leaves. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 25 (I):339-4I7.

- - - 1958. Aquatic hyphomycetes from Uganda and Rhodesia.

Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., 41 (I): 109-11 4.

32

The Virginia Journal of Science | januarv

- and V. J. Cox, 1957 Heliscus stellatus n. sj., an a(|uatic

hvphomvcete. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., 40 (1): 155-158.

Saccardo, P. A., 1880. Conspectus genernm fimgorum Italiae inferiorum. Michelia II: 1-38.

Umphlett, C. ]. 1957. Aquatic Hyphomycetes, including Heliscus tenta- cuius, n. sp., on decaying angiosperm materials. M. S. Thesis, Vir¬ ginia Polytechnic Institute, Unpublished.

1959]

Follicle Development in Goats

33

SKIN AND HAIR FOLLICLE DEVELOPMENT IN DAIRY GOATS

Lubow a. Margolena^

United States Department of Agriculture

With the exception of the improved domestic wool sheep, seasonal shedding is considered to be a universal phenomenon in fur-and wool¬ bearing animals. The object of the present study was to find out whether essential differences in the nature of histogenesis and further development exist between the skin and hair follicles of dairy goats and Karakul sheep, and whether these observations would contribute to the apprecia¬ tion of some basic processes involved, culminating in production of the various wools, and possibly also of mohair.

Descriptions of the pre- and post-natal development of hair follicles in animals related to goats have been confined to a few breeds of wool sheep. The bibliography and the subject itself have been admirably reviewed and presented by Carter (1955). Hence only publications per¬ tinent to this study will be referred to here.

While dairy goats undergo a well pronounced seasonal shedding, the situation is not so definite in the Karakul sheep. Lepeshchinskaya (1952) speaks of clear cut shedding and seasonal changes in the Karakul in the U. S. S. R. and Tanzer (1928) describes shedding in the Karakul in Ger¬ many as a process spread over a considerable period of time, involving, therefore, simultaneously relatively few follicles per unit of skin. No mass shedding was evident whatever in the Karakul flock kept from 1928 to 1951 at Beltsville, Maryland.

Shedding and non-shedding are evidently heritable characters. How¬ ever, in view of the findings of Lepeshchinskaya (1952) that a definite shedding season exists in the Karakul and because of its absence in the Beltsville flock, environmental factors must be considered as being pos¬ sibly instrumental in causing it in some sheep like the Karakul. Goats seemed well suited for the present study as they are closely related to sheep. Both are members of the Bovidae. The generic differ¬ ences between sheep and goats, such as the presence of glands in the fore and hind feet of sheep, differences in skull form, in the direction of spiralling of horns, etc., are unimportant as compared to similarities of structure, general physiologv of these animals, and the duration of

^ Wool, Fur and Fiber Section, Sheep, Goat and Fur Animal Research Branch, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, Maryland.

34 The Virginia Journal of Science 1 January

fetal development. Gestation in both sheep and goats is about 150 days, which makes a chronologic comparison of their skins a particularly suitable one.

Material. Samples collected for the present studies were obtained from the skin of the mid-dorsum and mid-venter of the common Ameri¬ can and Toggenburg goats from the Belts ville flock of the Agricultural Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture at Beltsville, Maryland, in the course of the years 1949 to 1956.

Twenty-two fetuses ranging in age from 39 to 145 days of uterine life, 12 kids, 1 to 210 days old, and 16 goats, 1 to 9 years of age, were used. Of the fetuses, 14 were of the common American breed, 7 were pure Toggenburg, and 1 caried 75% Toggenburg heredity. Among the postnatal samples — 20 were common American, 7 Toggenburg, and 1 carried 50% Toggenburg heredity. Both sexes, including two 3-year wethers were represented. No developmental differences connected with breed or sex were noted.

The Karakul material consisted of skin samples taken from the dorsum and venter of a strain which originated also from the Beltsville flock. These Karakul samples were collected during the vears 1949-1951 and were partially described bv Margolena (1954).

Methods. Mid-dorsal and mid-ventral skin samples, cut out in rectan¬ gles about 1 to 2 inches or smaller, depending on the size of the ani¬ mal, were collected immediately upon slaughter. The hair was sheared or clipped with a pair of small animal clippers from the area chosen, after which both the skin and the razor were sterilized in 70% alcohol prior to taking the sample. The same procedure was used for younger fetuses, with the exception that, of course, the naked ones needed no shearing. The skin was next flattened out on file card stock of appro¬ priate size and transferred to Bouin’s solution for fixation. After 24 or more hours as required for older specimens, the skins were dehydrated with the addition of butyl alcohol to the ascending series of ethyl alcohols, and finally pure butyl alcohol was used as an intermediate medium prior to infiltration in tissue mat. Sections were cut at 8 microns and heavier, where needed.

For staining the following procedures were used: Hematoxylin, Phlo- xine. Orange G (Margolena, 1933); Orcein, Mallory 11, Orange G (Mar¬ golena, 1950) and Feulgen’s chromatin reaction counterstained with picric acid and fast green.

Measurements were carried out bv means of ocular micrometers. The epidermis was measured at a magnification of 230 with a Spencer binocu¬ lar; the dermis and depth of follicular penetration were measured at a magnification of 40 with a Reichert Zetopan; for the diameters of fol-

1959] Follicle Development in Goats 35

licular bulbs a magnification of 80 was used with the Reichert micro¬ scope. The averages arrived at were based on figures from no less than 10 measurements taken usually from material on several slides.

The ratios between the secondary and the primary follicles were ob¬ tained by counting follicles contained in 236 bundles. This included over 700 primary and over 270 secondary follicles. Skins of 5 com¬ mon American and 4 Toggenburg goats were used for the above counts.

Discussion and Results

In goats, as in wool-bearing animals, and this is probably the case for mammals in general, the hair follicles develop at certain stages of their life history. The follicles develop in a definite sequence, and those appearing earliest are referred to as primary. In sheep and goats they are characterized by the presence of three accessory structures: the sebaceous and sudoriferous glands and the hair muscle. The secondary, or later developing follicles, show no sudoriferous gland nor muscle, and may or may not possess a sebaceous gland. In both Karakul sheep and the common American and Toggenburg goat, the larger primarv follicles remain distinguishable throughout their lives. The fibers mav also be distinguishable because of their larger diameter.

The appearance and differentiation of follicles is dependent on the physiologic and histologic preparedness of the skin to initiate and support such development and growth. Mature fully differentiated skins are inca¬ pable of recapitulating the process, thus the new follicles can only be initiated in regions where for one reason or another, e.g. wound healing, new skin is developing and undergoing stages corresponding to those found in fetal or verv young animals (unpublished data on Merino and Hampshire sheep and Toggenburg goats at Beltsville, Maryland).

Development of the hair follicles in mid-dorsal and mid-ventral regions of the goat skin. The primary follicles develop in groups of three, hence the expression “trio”. The anlage of the first primary follicle, that is the future central follicle, appears between the 65th and 70th day; this is soon followed by 2 lateral follicles, which are also primary follicles, but of slightly later initiation, thus establishing the trio group member¬ ship between the 75th and 85th dav.

In about three weeks after the development of the primary follicular generation the first earlv anlagen of the secondary follicles begin to ap¬ pear, which is upward of 90 days. Unlike the situation in the Karakul sheep, where initiation of the secondaries is practicallv confined to a few weeks (approximately 90 to 105 days of intrauterine life, Margolena, 1954), the initiation of the secondarv follicles in goats is extended through fetal and early postnatal life. Chart 1.

SEQUENCE IN FOLLICULAR DEVELOPMENT

in Fetal Skins

36

The Vibgixia Journal of Science

[ janiiarv

Chart 1. Sequence of events in the development of primary and secondar\' follicles in fetal skins of dairv goats and Karakul sheep.

( birth )

1959] Follicle Development in Goats 37

Development of later secondary follicles in lambs several weeks old is apparently a phenomenon which takes place not only in Merino, but also in some of the British Mountain sheep, Ryder (1957).

Differentiation and maturation of the primary follicles. Follicular acces¬ sory structures develop in goats from about the 90th to 100th day of uterine life, which is similar to the period when they develop in Karakul sheep fetuses. Sudoriferous glands develop a few days ahead of the sebaceous glands which is according to the general pattern of hair follicle differentiation.

The direct blood supply, that is the actual entry of capillaries in the follicular papilla, takes place at a time when the papilla is well estab¬ lished during the 95th to 105th day. Chart 1.

In his comprehensive presentation of the blood supply to wool follicles, Ryder (1955) writes that in the 100 day Romney fetus, blood vessels have not yet entered the dermal papilla. It appears, therefore, that both in the Karakul and goat fetuses the blood capillaries may penetrate the papilla slightly earlier than is the case with Romney sheep. Never¬ theless, in both breeds of sheep and in goats, hairs are already definitely growing in the primary follicles at about 110 days of uterine life.

The penetration of the blood capillaries in the follicles of Karakul sheep and goats seems to be synchronized with the differentiation of the outer epidermal root sheath. This sheath becomes delineated from other epider¬ mal formations particularly by a conspicuous row of cells with nuclei which have migrated away from the side closest to the connective tissue elements, and are disposed on the side closest to the follicular axis. A similar temporary transformation of epidermal cells was first presented by Segall, (1918) in his beautifully and clearly illustrated work on the guinea pig follicles, and later bv Spottel and Tanzer in Merino fetuses in 1923.

The maturation of the follicles, beginning with the keratinization of the cells forming the sheath about the growing hair, and referred to as the hair cone, follows the direct blood supply within about a week. Growth and further development of the follicles and hair from here on takes approximately 10 days and the primary hair pierces the skin before or at 120 days of uterine life. All this is similar to the development as found also in the Karakul sheep.

The relative increase in size of primary follicles (phenomena asso¬ ciated with shedding excluded) can be judged bv the depth of follicular penetration in the skin as shown in figures 1, 2 and 3 and Table 1. The straight hair of goats develop in follicles that are more or less slanting throughout their pre- and post-natal histories, verv much like

38 The Virginia Journal of Science [January

Table 1. Average Thickness of Dermis and Follicular Penetration of Primary OF Fetal, Kid and Goat Skin.

Maximum

Follicles

Depth of IN Dermis

GOAT FETAL SKIN

Dermis

Follicular

Dermis

Follicular

mid-dorsum

penetration

mid-venter penetration

mid-dorsum

mid-venter

Days

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

75-80

0.30

0.10

0.25

0.10

81

0.30

0.10

0.45

0.10

88

0.50

0.20

0.60

0.20

88

0.60

0.15

0.60

0.15

92

0.60

0.30

0.50

—

103*

0.60

0.15

0.50

0.15

112

0.90

0.50

1.0

0.50

118

1.30

0.80

—

0.70

120

1.45

0.85

—

1.0

130

1.10

0.80

1.10

0.70

134

1.45

0.85

. —

—

143

1.60

0.80

2.20

1.0

145

1.10

0.70

1.5

0.80

KID

SKIN

1

0.90

0.60

—

—

3

1.20

0.55

1.10

0.60

5

1.75

0.90

2.00

0.90

10

1.80

1.10

1.30

0.70

30

1.85

1.25

1.20

0.65

120

1.80

1.10

2.00

0.90

Years and

GOATS SKIN

months

1 yr.

1.90

0.80

1.35

0.70

1 yr. 4 months

1.65

0.90

1.30

0.80

2 yr. 4 months

2.75

1.10

2.55

0.85

3 yr.

2.40

1.45

2.00

0.90

3 yr. 8V2 months

4.40

2.45

3.40

1.30

3 yr. 9 months

3.10

1.45

2.45

1.45

5 yr.

3.55

1.80

1.95

0.80

7 yr.

3.85

2.20

2.40

1.10

8 yr.

3.30

1.45

1.65

0.70

9 yr.

3.30

1.45

—

—

* These skins were from fetal twins, supposedly 103 days old, and born

from a doe which gave a positive Johne’s reaction. They showed a considerable retardation of follicular development, and were rather small if their age actually corresponded to our records.

19591

Follicle Development in Goats

39

Table 2. Average Thickness of Epidermis of Fetal, Kid and Goat Skin.

Days

Goat Fetal Skin

Mid-dorsum Mid-venter

11 IX

Goat Skin

Years and

months Mid-dorsum Mid-venter

IX IX

39

6

6

1 16

17

50

14

14

1 yr. 4 mo. 17

20

75-80

1 24

24

2 yr. 4 mo. 18

18

81

24

28

2 yr. 6 mo. 19

17

88

28

24

3 yr. 22

17

92

25

25

3 yr. 8^ mo.27

21

103

26

25

3 yr. 9 mo. 16

16

112

21

18

5 yr. 21

—

120

17

14

6 yr. 13

14

130

16

17

7 yr. 23

24

143

17

16

8 yr. 16

16

145

16

16

9 yr. 30

21

Kid Skin

1

16

16

3

16

16

5

16

16

10

16

15

30

18

16

120

30

16

210

21

17

those of Karakul sheep and unlike the twisted and curled follicles of the Merino sheep. There is, however, a surprisingly straight phase exhi¬ bited by both goat and Karakul dorsal follicles at about birth and for some 10 days after. Whether that period during which the primary fol¬ licles are disposed at a right angle in relation to the surface of the skin is caused by the tension associated with accelerated growth during the first postnatal days is a question that remains to be answered.

Maturation and keratinization of the secondary follicles. While keratin- ization is close to completion a few days before birth in the Karakul,

40 The Virginia Journal of Science [January

at about 130 days of prenatal life, this is not the case with goats, where maturation is spread out from about 135 days of fetal hfe to the first postnatal month. In this respect, goats are more like fine wool sheep {e. g. the Merino) than the Karakul sheep.

Another possible difference in the development of the secondary fol¬ licles of dairy goats is the incidence of sebaceous glands. Sparse and uneven sebaceous glands will be encountered in the early development in goats, while they are practically absent in the Karakul sheep.

The blood supply in the papillae of the small secondary follicles in goats is not only less pronounced as compared to that of the primary ones, but appears even somewhat uncertain. The dermal papillae may have difficulty in getting themselves established within a space that is hardly large enough to house the connective tissue cells forming it, not to speak of the area necessary to accomodate two capillary loops. The chronologic development of secondary fibers is shown in Chart 1.

In view of the more flexible and variable nature of the secondary follicles, it is suggested that attempts to improve the quality of wool or other fibers, particular attention should also be devoted towards fac¬ tors which might influence the initiation and maturation of the above fol¬ licles.

Maturation and growth of the bulbs of the primary follicles. Measure¬ ments of the diameters of the bulbs of pre- and post-natal primary follicles of goats and Karakul sheep indicate that the bulbs of goats attain their mature dimensions later in development than those of the Karakul. Thus the diameters in sheep are well within the range of that found in mature animals (110-135 microns) beginning with fetuses 4 months old, while the bulbs of goats do not reach their full dimensions (90 to 115 microns), until about 10 days after birth.

Tolmakova (1956) found that bulbs of the primary follicles of '‘Elite” Karakul newborn lambs measured 117 to 129 microns at Sovkhoz “Mura- bek”, U. S. S. R., while those of another good variety, but with a fur less dense than in the “Elite” and sampled at same age were 130 to 145 microns. Tolmakova’s values confirm our findings that Karakuls have comparatively larger bulbs than goats.

Skin development and differentiation. In goat skins, just as in Karakul skins, and at variance with that of the Merino, a progressive thicken¬ ing of the dorsal corium takes place as the kid, or the lamb develops into a mature and eventually older animal, figures 2 and 3.

The measurements presented may not quite give the whole story of the thickness of the skin, assuming that it may vary according to sea-

1959]

Follicle Development in Goats

41

GOAT: FETAL

DAYS

Fig. 1. Average thickness of dermis and maximum depth of follicular penetration of primary follicles in dermis of goat fetal skin.

KID

DAYS

Fig. 2. Average thickness of dermis and maximum depth of follicular penetration of primarv follicles in dermis of kid skin.

42

The Virginia Journal of Science

GOAT: POSTNATAL

I January

DORSUM

mm

4

VENTER

3

‘ A ■

iW Dermis

■ rh -

2

'' /l''' A.

- / -

1

/X

Follicular penetration

_ ^ ^ _ 1 _ ^ _

- 0-

I - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - L 0 -I - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

YEARS

Fig. 3. Average thickness of dermis and maximum depth of follicular penetration of primary follicles in dermis of goat skin.

EPIDERMIS: FETAL AND KID

1959]

Follicle Development in Goats

43

EPIDERMIS: GOAT

Fig. 5. Average thickness of epideimis of goat skin.

son. With the exception of two December specimens (one 2 years 4 months, and the other 3 years 9 months of age), mature skins avail¬ able were from animals slaughtered during the second or third week of October. None was representative of early or mid-summer, and only three were late summer skins (collected in September); of these one was a one-year old goat, and two were kids, 1 and 10 days old.

The general tendency, however, of mature and older animals to show heavier skins accompanied by a greater depth of follicular penetra¬ tion as compared to younger ones, has been also found in the Karakul by recent workers — Tolmakova (1956), Diomidova (1957), and the author (1954).

Unlike the skins of the Karakuls, where shedding and resting hair follicles are rare, 'some shedding or resting hair as well as new growing ones were noted in goat specimens taken in January, March, September, October, November, December and January. Some early January sam¬ ples contained more new growing hair than mature primary follicles. These samples are not included in our measurements because too few animals were available.

Shedding hairs in goats appears to be of the usual “brush” type. The stages leading to and shedding of the primary follicles during the

44 The Virginia Journal of Science [ January

colder months is a phenomenon hardly noticeable on the surface, espe¬ cially as compared to the conspicuous shedding involving the underhair (secondary follicles ) in early and mid-summer.

Measurements of the dorsal dermins of mature animals varied from 3 to near 4 millimeters. The heaviest, 4.4 millimeters, happened to be that of a Toggenburg male almost 4 years old. The softer and thinner ventral skins showed less uniformity as a whole. Nevertheless, the same male which had a heavier dermis in the dorsal region, measured also a heavier one in the ventral region, figure 3, table 1.

The epidermis of the goafs skin. The epidermis remains a thin layer throughout pre-and postnatal life. Disregarding the irregularly present periderm of certain fetal stages, it is barely 6 microns wide prior to follicular initiation. The germinal layer of the epidermis is 20-28 microns thick during the height of its activity, that is during that period when the anlagen of the primary and earlier secondary follicles are being ini¬ tiated, figures 4 and 5, and table 2. It is interesting to find that the mitotic counts in the cells of the fetal epidermis of the Karakul are highest at that same period, that is between about the 65 and 95 days of uterine life. (Margolena and Dolnick, 1953)

Once the anlagen of the primary and earlier secondary follicles in goats are established, the diameter of the germinal layer of the epidermis returns to that found just prior to their initiation. In fetuses 4 months old it is about 16 microns wide. In mature animals the germinal layer varies around 25 microns. The differences between the diameters of the dorsal and ventral epidermis of goat skins are quite comparable to variations within any spot in the same region.

The same general trend is described by Diomidova (1957). However, the value of 8 to 9 microns, as given by her for the germinal layer of the epidermis of the skin of Karakul fetuses ranging in age from 4 months to the time of birth seems low.

Differentiation of the dermis of goat skin. The differentiation of the corium is directly related to processes taking place in the epidermis and conditions the development of the follicles. The appearance and behavior of melanocytes will be dealt with elsewhere. At the time the first fol¬ licular anlagen are being formed there is no differentiation of the mesen¬ chymal cells except for a formation of a layer denser than the rest of the embryonal tissue and with elements disposed parallel to the surface.

Blood capillaries are found in the proximity of follicular anlagen. The above developments appear to proceed almost simultaneously. Capilla¬ ries and blood vessels in the skin of goats become particularly conspicuous during the trio stage. Here the capillaries mav appear to delineate the

1959] Follicle Development in Goats 45

trio group, similar to the way that the collagenic fibers will almost appear to fence in portions of follicles.

Gradually, while the trio stage progresses, collagenic fibers make their appearance. Their differentiation is more pronounced in the lower regions of the dermis, where they are found in heavier bundles.

Fat cells appear at practically the same time, that is upwards of the 80th day of fetal life. They appear in the deeper reticular region in the vicinity of blood vessels or capillaries in units of from 1 to 5 cells, and increase in numbers until fat cells form longish islands of fairly loose discontinuous adipose tissue amidst the areolar mesh. The groups of fat cells lie parallel to the underlying skin muscle. In goats the accelerated period of fat cell development is apparentlv terminated in fetuses about 4 months old.

Fat cells in animals here examined were found under the limits of follicular penetration, not between the follicles themselves, as is the case during certain stages of fetal follicular development of the softer skins of ranch mink, Dolnick (1955).

Elastic fibers appear apparently later than the collagenic ones. They are, however, present about the time the primary follicles begin to kera¬ tinize. This refers to elastic fibers as constituents of the network as such, for they are, of course, developed at much earlier stages in the walls of the vessels of the immature fetal skins.

Follicular ratio. The average ratio between the secondary and primary follicles of dairy goats was found to be 3.97, with a range of 9 to 14 per bundle. It seems interesting to note that even this approximate figure is close to that found in the Beltsville Karakul flock, and perhaps not essentiallv different from some of the British Mountain breeds, Rvder (1957).

Summary

A description of the development and differentiation of skin and hair follicles of the common American and Toggenburg goats from fetal stages through maturity is presented and compared with that of the Karakul sheep. Measurements of the fetal and postnatal skins, depth of follic¬ ular penetration, and ratios between the secondarv and primarv follicles are included.

Despite the fact that the dairy goats observed undergo regular sea¬ sonal shedding and belong in a different genus • ( Gapra ) , than the non¬ shedding Karakuls of the Beltsville, Maryland flock, (Ovis), the initia¬ tion and maturation of the secondarv follicles in goats appear closer chron-

46

The Virginia Journal of Science 1 januarv

ologically to fine wool sheep than to the Karakul. However, differ¬ ences in size between the primary and secondary follicles are more pro¬ nounced in goats than in the Karakul and still more than in the fine wool sheep.

The general sequence of events in the development of the skin com¬ ponents and of the primary follicles in the above goats and sheep proceed too closely to be due to chance. However, differences in the time and span of production, maturation and morphologic detail of the secondarv follicles are more variable in goats than in the Karakul.

Literature Cited

Carter, H. B. 1955. The hair folhcle group in sheep. Animal Breeding Abstracts. 23:101.

Diomidova, N. A. 1957. Individual character in the development of the skin and hair follicles of Karakul lambs. Karakidevodstvo i Zvero- vodstvo. 10:39. (In Russian)

Dolnick, Ethel H. 1955. Histogenesis of hair in the mink. Doctoral Dis¬ sertation, George Washington University. (Unpublished) 83 pp.

Lepeshchinskaya, E. M. 1952. Seasonal changes of the skin of mammalian animals. Jour. Zool. 31:434. (In Russian)

Margolena, Lubow A. 1933. Phloxine with Orange G as a differential counterstain. Stain Technology. 8:157.

Margolena, Lubow A. 1950. A differential staining method for elastic fibers, collagenic fibers and keratin. Stain Technology. 26:119.

Margolena, Lubow A. and Ethel H. Dolnick. 1953. Cell division in the epidermis of the fetuses and young lambs of Karakul sheep. Virginia Jour. Science. 4: Abstracts.

Margolena, Lubow A. 1954. Sequence and growth of primary and sec¬ ondary fiber follicles in Karakul sheep. Jour. An. Sci. 13:765.

Ryder, M. L. 1955. The blood supply to the wool follicle. Proc. Intern. Wool Text. Res. Conference, Australia, F63.

Ryder, M. L. 1957. A survey of the follicle population in a range of British breeds of sheep. J. Agr. Sc. 49:275.

Segall, A. 1918. Wechsel der Haare beim Meerschweinchen, Cava cobya. Arch. Mike. Anat. 91:218.

Spottel, Walter and Tanzer, Ernst. 1923. Rassenanalytische Untersuch-

Follicle Development in Goats

47

1959]

ungen an Schafen unter besonderer Berucksichtigung von Haiit iind Haar. Arch. Naturgesch. 89:1.

Tanzer, Ernst. 1928. Haul und Haar beim Karakulschaf iiu rassenanah- tischen Vergleich. Kuhn Archiv. 18:151.

Tolmakova, G. M. 1956. Age changes of the skin and hair cover of Karakul lambs in connection with the quality of the pelt. Kdrakule- vodstvo i Zverovodstvo. 9:25 (in Russian)

48

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

News And Notes

{Editors Note). News contributions should be sent to the person whose name appears at the end of the appropriate sections.)

MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT

The 1959 meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science will be held at the University of Virginia, May 7-9 inclusive. It is our earnest hope that as many as possible will attend, and will also contribute to the suc¬ cess of the meeting by presenting papers. It is fitting that in this time of such great interest in science that the Academy should meet at an in¬ stitution founded by Thomas Jefferson, one of the first great American Scientists.

Your officers look forward to a stimulating meeting as we gather in the hallowed halls of the University of Virginia. Although the pre¬ sentation of a paper at the annual meeting of the Academy may not add anything to the professional reputation of a seasoned investigator, never¬ theless, the fact that he, or she, does present a paper is of great inspira¬ tional value to those who are starting on their scientific careers. May we look forward to having your advice and guidance, not only at the var¬ ious scientific sessions, but also at the Academy Conference and busi¬ ness meeting?

The J. Shelton Horsley Research Award is given each year for a “highly meritorious” paper presented at the Academy’s annual meeting. Details of this award will be sent you by the secretaries of the various sections.

We are very fortunate in having Mr. S. 1. Gale, Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society of London, and a member of the Develop¬ ment and Research Staff of the Bound Brook Plant of American Cyan- amid Company as our guest speaker for the Friday night meeting. His topic will be “Chemistry on a Cosmic Scale.”

One of the major functions of the Academy is to encourage and develop scientific interest among the youth of the State. To this the Senior Acad¬ emy is dedicated. It is so easy to forget one’s obligation to youth and to assume that someone else will do what should be done. May I urge that when the secretaries of the various sections ask you to appear on the program you will give the request serious consideration. May I also urge as many as possible of the senior scientists to visit the exhibits of the Junior Academy. I am sure the juniors will appreciate it and that you will not be disappointed bv the reception that vou will be given. Please

News and Notes

1959]

49

do not forget the commercial exhibits where you will see the latest in scientific equipment and in books.

The local Committee on Arrangements, under the able direction of Dr. S. P. Marony, has its plans for the meeting well organized and nearly com¬ plete. I am sure you will all be pleased with the facilities and other ar¬ rangements which are being made not only for the scientific part of the program but also for your pleasure and comfort.

— J. C. Forbes, President

Research Committee Notice

The Research Committee of the Virginia Academy of Science invites members of the Academy to submit papers in the 1958 competition for the J. Shelton Horsley Research Prize. Papers should be submitted to Sec¬ tion Secretaries so that they may be forwarded to the Research Com¬ mittee by April 15, 1958. Papers should be submitted in triplicate and to be eligible (1) should contain original research, (2) the author must be a member of the Academy, (3) the paper must be presented at the May, 1958, meeting, and (4), although the paper may be either publish¬ ed or unpublished, publication must not have been prior to May of the preceding year (reprints may be submitted). It is expected that the winner’s paper, or a revision of it, wifi be made available for publication in the VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. No person will be awarded the prize more than once. The J. Shelton Horsley Research Award is made annually and consists of recognition for meritorius research and a cash prize of $100.00.

The Research Committee also has some funds available for small re¬ search grants and applications for grants will be welcomed. The 1958-59 Committee has prepared a list of information required in an application for a grant, and this can be obtained by prospective applicants by writ¬ ing to the Chairman, Ralph A. Bradley, Department of Statistics, Vir¬ ginia Polvtechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia.

— R. A. Bradlev, Chairman Agricultural Sciences

Russell G. Louis has returned to his position as associate professor of Industrial Arts Education, Department of Vocational Education, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, after serving as Educationist, U. S. Mission to Haiti.

Kenneth E. Dawson, who served as assistant professor in Mr. Louis’ absence is now enrolled at the Universitv of Marvland as a candidate for a doctor’s degree.

50 The Virginia Journal of Science [January

Dr. W. G. Evans resigned August 1, as assistant professor of Entomo¬ logy at Virginia Polytechnic Institute to accept a position at the Univer¬ sity of Alberta, Canada. Jack Lynn Bishop, with B.S. and M.S. degrees from Kansas State and nearing completion of work on his Ph.D has been appointed assistant professor of Entomology.

Littleton W. Johnson with B. S. degree has been appointed assistant pro¬ fessor of Food Technology to serve as extension specialist and assistant with research in fruit and vegetable processing in the Department of Horti¬ culture at Virginia Polytechnic Institute. He replaced Roy Moser who resigned to accept a position at Oregon State.

Mr. Roy Russell has been appointed assistant professor in the Depart¬ ment of Agricultural Economics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute to work in Livestock Extension Marketing. Mr. Russell holds a B.S. degree from Alabama Polytechnic Institute and has completed requirements for his M.S. from the same school. He comes to the V. P. I. directly from grad¬ uate school and is a native of Alabama. The position being filled by Mr. Russell was formerly held by Mr. Shirlev Carter who resigned to do graduate work at North Carolina State.

Mr. Albert J. Orfego has been appointed assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural Economics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute to work in Dairy Marketing Extension. Mr. Ortego holds the B.S. degree from Southern Louisana Institute and the M.S. degree from Louisiana State University and is a native of Louisiana. The position he fills was held by Dr. Carl T. Arnold who transferred to research and teaching January 1, 1958.

A grant of $344,005 for health related research facilities has been approved for the Virginia Pol\ technic Institute bv the National Institute of Health.

This money will be used in providing research facilities in the bio¬ chemistry and nutrition laboratory for which the 1958 General Assembly appropriated $490,000. The grant of $344,005 was made on a match¬ ing basis.

The grant will be used to strengthen the research being conducted at Virginia Polytechnic Institute in the health related sciences. These in¬ clude the evaluation of the use of such chemicals as pesticides, herbi¬ cides, and fungicides on crops and animals as thev influence human health.

Other matters upon which research will be conducted include the determination of nutritional requirements of pre-adolescent children; use of antibiotics in disease control and as growth stimulants of animals and

News and Notes

1959]

51

poultry; and the impact of food processing on the wholesomeness and nutrient values with emphasis on new methods of sterilization.

The grant combined with the state appropriation will provide a three story building and research facilities in bio-chemistry, micro-biology, and nutrition. The building and its facilities will be directed by the bio-chem¬ istry and nutrition department of which Dr. R. W. Engel is head.

~ Carl W. Allen, Virginia Polytechnic Institute

Bacteriology

Dr. E. C. Nelson of the Medical College of Virginia, Richmond, Vir¬ ginia, attended the 6th International Congress for Tropical Medicine and Malaria in Lisbon, September 5 to 13.

Dr. P. A. Hansen participated in the Symposium on: “Exchange of genetic materials. Mechanisms and consequences” held at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, June 3 to 11.

Biology

Dr. Huseyin Gokcora, Associate Professor, University of Ankara, Turkey and also Dr. Josip Gotlin, Associate Professor, Zagreb University, Yugo¬ slavia worked with Professor W. Ralph Singleton— learning new techni¬ ques and methods— at the corn breeding radiation laboratory at The Blandy Experimental Farm during the summer of 1958. Both Dr. Gok¬ cora and Dr. Gotlin were Fellows of the International Cooperation Ad¬ ministration.

Among foreign visitors to The Blandy Experimental Farm during the summer of 1958 were geneticists from Argentina, Australia, Japan, and Yugoslavia. In addition four students from Turkey and a group of 13 stu¬ dents from France studied work in progress at Blandy.

A number of members of the Northern Nut Growers Association from mid- western states visited The White Arboretum at Blandy Farm, en- route to their annual meeting at Beltsville, Maryland, on August 16 and 17, 1958. The heavily-fruited selected paw-paw trees {Asimina triloba) were among the chief objects of interest to the group.

At Bridgewater College Dr. Frances E. Silliman has returned to the Biology Department after completing doctoral studies and receiving her degree at the University of North Carolina, where she also assisted in the Department of Botnay. Professor Harry G. M. Jopson participated in the National Science Foundation Institute for College Teachers of Biology

52 The Virginia Journal of Science [January

held at Oregon State College, Corvallis, Oregon during the summer. Mrs. Elizabeth League Kyger has resigned her position in the department, but will continue to reside in Bridgewater.

Mr. Robert E. Merritt has returned to his position in the Longwood College Department of Biology after a year of graduate study at the University of Tennessee. Dr. J. M. Lodewijks who substituted for Mr, Merritt last session has returned to his home country. The Nether¬ lands. His present address is Buizerdlaan 13, The Hague, Holland.

Mr. A. H. O’Bier, Jr., who last year assisted Dr. R. T. Brumfield, at Longwood, under a grant from the Atomic Energy Commission is pur¬ suing graduate studies at Virginia Polytechnic Institute.

Dr. Paul J. Osborne of the Biology staff of Lynchburg College, spent the past summer at the Duke Marine Laboratory, Beaufort, North Caro¬ lina, working on the energy cycles of marine invertebrates, determining whether they fixed carbon dioxide, and if so, observing any phylogenetic similarities and differences. The work was done by means of radioactive tracers, coupled with paper chromatography. He worked with Dr. Carl Hammen, under the direction of Dr. Karl Wilbur. Dr. Osborne’s work was made possible by a research grant from the American Physiological Society.

Dr. John G. Mahan, also of the Lynchburg College Biology staff, was a member of a team from that college which participated in the Dan- forth Foundation College Community Workshop, at Colorado Springs, Colorado for three weeks last summer. Twenty-eight colleges were repre¬ sented in a consideration of the place of the small college in modern education.

At the University of Richmond Dr. Jack D. Burke has been awarded a grant from the Sigma Xi Research Fund for blood studies in the arma¬ dillo. Dr. William S. Woolcott, of the same institution, gave a course in animal ecologv during the first term at the Mountain Lake Biological Station.

Dr. Harry L. Hollowav has been promoted to Professor of Biology at Roanoke College. He has recently received grants-in-aid for the purchase of equipment, in connection with studies on the helminths of wild animals in Virginia, from the Sigma Xi-RESA Research Fund and from the Vir¬ ginia Academy of Science.

Mr. William N. Garner was appointed Assistant Professor of Biology at Roanoke College in 1957. He received the B. S, degree in biology and chemistry from Bethany College and the M. A. degree in zoology and botany from Duke University.

1959]

News and Notes

53

Eta Eta Chapter, Tri-Beta Society, Roanoke College and the Roanoke Valley Bird Club are presenting a series of lectures by eminent naturalists (Audubon Screen Tours) on the campus during the session 1958-59. Allan Cruickshank spoke on October 21 on the topic “River of the Crying Bird”; Fran William Hall on December 3 lectured on “Puerto Rico, U. S. A.”; and on April 18 Emerson Scott will discuss “Rocky Mountain Rambles”.

The Mountain Lake Biological Station has recently been advised by the National Science Foundation that its grant of $18,000 for three years has been renewed (1959-1961). This grant has made available funds foi the establishment of Awards for research and study at the Station. Three types of awards are available: Post-Doctorates, for research; Pre-Doctor¬ ates, for supervised research; and Post-Graduates, for training in field or laboratory research techniques, thus permitting course work. AppHca- tion blanks for these awards may be secured from the Director, Moun¬ tain Lake Biological Station, Department of Biology, University of Vir¬ ginia, and must be submitted by April 1, 1959.

— Walter S. Florv, Jr., Blandy Experiment Farm

Chemistry

Bridgewater College Chemistry Department is offering an upper-level undergraduate chemistry course in Advanced Organic Chemistry, taking up such topics as mechanisms of organic reactions, dyes, vitamins, ster¬ oids, alkaloids, etc. This course is being offered in the evenings, for the benefit of the chemical industry of this area.

Mary Kapp from Richmond Professional Institute was a summer em¬ ployee in Research and Development at Philip Morris.

Dr. John H. Wise, Washington and Lee University, spent his fifth consecutive summer at Oak Ridge as a temporary employee of the Physics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. In August, he was a partici¬ pant in the Virginia Education Association Instructional Institute on “Science in the Secondary Schools” at Longwood College.

From Randolph-Macon Womans College

A summer institute for high school teachers of science was held at the college from July 9 to August 21. Dr. Nan V. Thornton, Dr. Helen L. Whidden, and Miss Imogene B. Claiborne instructed in chemistry. The institute was sponsored by the National Science Foundation.

Mr. Forrest C. Hentz, Jr., has joined the Chemistry Department as

54 The Virginia Journal of Science [January

an instructor. He received his M.S. degree this summer from the Uni¬ versity of North Carolina.

Dr. Nan V. Thornton attended the meetings of the American Chemical Society in Chicago in early September. She was also a participant in the Institute of the Virginia Educational Association at Longwood College, August 21-23.

Dr. Helen L. Whidden continued her work as technical adviser to the Chemistry Section of the Babcock and Wilcox Company this summer on a fullTime basis. During the school year, she works part-time in the same position.

Dr. Laura Bliss attended the Fourth International Congress of Bio¬ chemistry in Vienna in September.

From the Virginia Polytechnic Institute:

William L. McPherson has been promoted from assistant professor to associate professor and also directs the work of the Radioehemistry Laboratory.

Dr. Alexej B. Borkovec joined the staff of the Chemistry Depart¬ ment in September as an assistant professor. He was previously employed by the Texas Division of the Dow Chemical Company.

Dr. Frank A. Vingiello taught in the first summer session at Duke University in North Carolina.

Dr. and Mrs. J. W. Watson attended the meeting of the American Chemical Societv in Chicago in September.

Robert C. Krug and James A. Rigney presented a paper at the Chi¬ cago meeting entitled, “Unsaturated Cvclic Sulfines IV: Isomeric 2- Methyldihydrothiophene 1, 1-Dioxides.”

Professor W. L. McPherson attended the Second Conference on Analytieal Chemistry in Nuclear Reactor Technology sponsored by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory held on September 29, 30, and October 1, at Gatlinburg, Tennessee.

Dr. Luther K. Brice and Professor William L. McPherson were re¬ sponsible for the Physical Science portion of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute Virginia State Fair Exhibit shown in Richmond, September, 1958.

Mr. N. B. Lorette, a Research Specialist from the Organic Basic Re¬ search Laboratory of the Dow Chemical Company, Freeport, Texas Divi¬ sion, and Mr. John Moore, Assistant Director of Research, Organic Chem¬ istry Section, Dow Chemical Company, were visitors on our campus Octo-

News and Notes

55

1959]

ber 15 and 16. Mr. Lorette spoke before the local Chapter of Phi Lambda Upsilon on the Preparation of Ketals.

Dr. J. W. Watson retired as Head of the Chemistry Department on September 1 and the position is now filled by Dr. Robert C. Krug.

Mr. Clifton Wilson and Mr. John Sheridan joined the staff of the Chemistry Department as teaching assistants in September.

Dr. Robert C. Krug, Councilor representing the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, attended the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies Council Meeting in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, October 21.

— M. A. Kise, Virginia Smelting Company

Engineering

Dean Lawrence R. Quarles of the University of Virginia School of En¬ gineering has announced the appointment of Professor Charles N. Gay¬ lord of tne Civil Engineering Department as Assistant Dean of the School of Engineering. Dean Quarles represented the University of Virginia on a NRUTC cruise to Europe tor two months from June to August. Pro¬ fessor Gaylord attended the annual meeting of the American Society for Engineering Education in Berkeley, California in June. In August Dean Quarles attended the Virginia Education Association Conference of Science Teachers in the capacity of consultant in physics. In October he repre¬ sented the University of Virginia at the Atlanta meeting of the Regional Advisory Council on Nuclear Energy.

Professor Orville R. Harris of the Electrical Engineering Department of the University of Virginia was elected Secretary-Treasurer of the Vir¬ ginia Section ot the Inscitute of Radio Engineers. Professor R. E. L. Gildea of the Civil Engineering Department of the University was elected to mem¬ bership in the American Academy of Sanitary Engineers in recognition of his high standing and long experience in this field. Prof. Gildea presented a paper on “Sand and Anthrafilt Filters” at a conference held in the Wash¬ ington area in May.

Mr. Tilton E. Shelburne, Director of the Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research, attended a meeting of the Board of Directors of the American Society of Civil Engineers in Portland, Oregon in June. He traveled to La Salle, Illinois in July to attend regular meetings of the Performance Rating Panel and the National Advisory Committee of the AASHO Road-Test. Mr. Shelburne was active in all preparations made at the University of Virginia for the First International Skid Pre¬ vention Conference held September 8 to 12. He was chairman of the sub-

56

The Virginia Journal of Science

1 January

Products of

Uctkuzeo- IS OUR MIDDLE NAME

News and Notes

57

1959]

committee reviewing laboratory and field methods of measuring road sur¬ face friction.

Mr. James L. Eades of the Virginia Council of Highway Investigation and Research has been awarded a fellowship by the National Lime Asso¬ ciation for study and research at the University of Illinois where he is now located. He will work for the doctors degree under Prof. Ralph Grimm.

Professor David M. Crim of the Civil Engineering Department of Vir¬ ginia Military Institute has collaborated on writing a text Engineering Materials published recently by Pitman.

Professor Arthur Bruce, on leave of absence from the Aeronautical Engi¬ neering Department of Virginia Polytechnic Institute, is attending Massa¬ chusetts Institute of Technology. He was awarded a fellowship to work for the doctor’s degree in aeronautical engineering. During the past sum¬ mer he was engaged in research for the NACA at Langley Field, Vir¬ ginia during which time he completed a NACA publication "Smooth Entry Into the Earth’s Atmosphere”. Professor Robert W. Truitt of the Aeronautical Engineering Department at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, also was engaged in research for the NACA at Langley Field where he worked on the preparation of a manual "Introduction to Hypersonic Aero¬ dynamics”. A paper "Minimum-Drag Cone Frustum at Hypersonic Speeds” by Dr. Truitt appeared in the August issue of Aero Space Sciences.

The Chemical Engineering Department of Virginia Polytechnic Insti¬ tute has announced the appointment of Mr. Donald Puyear as Instructor. Mr. Puyear comes from the Missouri School of Mines. A new bulletin ol the Chemical Engineering Department "Anodic Behavior of Nickel, I, Effect of Components of Electrolvte” has been prepared by B. C. Oza and Professor N. F. Murphv.

Professors Otis L. Updike and Robert M. Hubbard of the Chemical Engineering Department of the University of Virginia attended the Gol¬ den Anniversary Meeting of the American Institute of Chemical Engi¬ neers in Philadelphia in June. Professor Updike is active in work of the Program Committee preparing for a future symposium, and Professor Hub¬ bard is chairman of a committee for Teacher Recruiting and Placement. Professor Hubbard spoke in June to the Virginia Section of the Instru¬ ment Society of America in Richmond. In October he attended a confer¬ ence of college professors at Esso Research and Engineering Company in New Jersey.

The Chemical Engineering Department of the Universitv has announced the appointment of Dr. Harold A. O’Hern and Dr. Robert H. Moen as As-

58 The Virginia Journal of Science | januarv

sistant Professors of Chemical Engineering. Dr. O’Hern comes from ihe Engineering Experiment Station of the Du Pont Company, and Dr. Moen comes from the Petroleum Development Division of Esso Research and Engineering.

— Robert M. Hubbard, University of Virginia

Ceology

Gilles O. Allard joined the staff of the Geology Department at the Uni¬ versity of Virginia in September 1958 as assistant professor. He received his B. A. and B. Sc. (geology) from the University of Montreal, his M. A. from Queen’s University in 1953 and his Ph.D. from the Johns Hopkins University in 1956. He has been working in the Chibougamau area, north¬ ern Quebec, since 1952, first for the Quebec Department of Mines doing detailed mapping, and then as Superintendent of field operations for Chibougamau Mining and Smelting, an active exploration company. Mr. Allard’s main interests are economic geologv and petrolog\'.

R. S. Mitchell, at the University of Virginia, is completing a two-year research project entitled “A Study of Polvtvpism and Its Relationship to the Theory of the Spiral Growth of Crystals” which is financed by a Re¬ search Corporation Frederick Gardner Cottrell grant. Papers completed under this project are “A Correlation between Theoretical Screw Dislo¬ cations and the Known Polytypes of Silicon Carbide,” Zeitschrift fur Kris- tallographie, 109, 1, 1957; “Cadmium Bromide: Growth Spirals and Pos¬ sible Polytypism”, Nature, 182, 337, 1958; and “A Study of a Silicon Car¬ bide Crvstal Containing a New Polvtvpe, 27H,” Zeitschrift fur Kristallo- graphie, in press, 1958. Structural polvtvpism in lead iodide is currentlv being investigated.

“Industrial Limestones and Dolomites in Virginia: James River District West of the Blue Ridge”, by R. S. Edmundson has been published bv the Virginia Department of Conservation and Development as Bulletin 73 of the Division of Mineral Resources, Charlottesville, Virginia. The bulletin is accompanied bv a colored geologic map.

New geology staff member at Washington and Lee University is Dr. Kenneth F. Bick, assistant professor. Dr. Bick has carried out stratigraphic studies in the westward extension of the Unita Mountains in Utah and Nevada.

Four undergraduates from the Washington and Lee University Geology Department accompanied Dr. Edgar Spencer to Montana last summer. Dr. Spencer’s studies of Precambrian geologv and structural historv of the

News and Notes

1959J

59

Madison Range will continue for two more years under a National Science Foundation grant.

The largest undergraduate geology class in Washington and Lee history was graduated last June, a total of 14 seniors, more than a third of which went on to graduate school at Michigan and Columbia.

Washington and Lee’s geology department will occupy new modern quarters in another year. The department will be assigned two floors and share a new science building with the biology department under the University’s recently announced expansion plans.

A social item from Lexington: Miss Elizabeth Humphries became the bride of Dr. Edgar Spencer on November 26th.

The Department of Geological Sciences at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute has enrolled a record number of graduate students this year. A total of 23 graduate students currently are working on advanced degrees and 7 of these are candidates for the Ph.D. The number of field mapping problems being pursued activelv in Southwest Virginia has thereby trip¬ led.

Dr. Jack A. Redden joined the Virginia Polytechnic Institute of Geolog¬ ical Sciences on September I as a permanent addition to the staff. Dr. Redden is a graduate of Dartmouth College and obtained his Ph.D.

degrees from Harvard University. He has been employed by the U.S.

Geological Survey for ten years as petrologist and economic geologist working in the Black Hills area, South Dakota. Dr. Redden is particularly interested in pegmatites, metamorphic petrology, and structural geology. He will be partly responsible for instruction at the Summer Field Station at Saltville.

A record number of students attended the Virginia Polytechnic Institute Summer Field Course at the Saltville Field Station last summer. Some 31 students from seven states were enrolled. The staff included Dr. B. N.

Cooper, Director, Dr. B. W. Nelson, Dr. C. E. Sears, and Prof. C. G.

Tillman.

Dr. R. V. Dietrich, Professor of Geology at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, left in August with his family for a year’s study at the Mineral- ogical Institute, University of Olso, Norwav, under a FuTbright research professorship.

Dr. C. E. Sears conducted the geology sessions for the Summer Institute for High School Science Teachers held at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute for the second successive year under auspices of the National Science Foundation.

Dr. B. N. Cooper, head of the Virginia Poivtechnic Institute Depart-

60

The Virginia Journal of Science

[January

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PHILIP MORRIS, INC

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News and Notes

61

1959J

ment of Geological Sciences, traveled extensively during the summer to study special economic aspects of limestone and shale deposits in Texas, Kansas, Indiana, New York, Maryland, and Alabama. He also completed a special report on ground water for the Virginia Advisory Legislative Council. Preceding the meeting of the Geological Society of America Council, of which he is a member, Dr. Cooper gave a special lecture to the faculty and graduate students at the University of Wisconsin at Madi¬ son, Wisconsin.

Professor C. G. Tillman of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute spent the latter part of the summer in Cambridge, Massachusetts, continuing his studies of Middle Silurian invertebrate faunas.

Dr. W. D. Lowry of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute spent the sum¬ mer finishing his extensive report of structural and stratigraphic geology of parts of eastern Oregon. This report soon will be published by the Oregon Geological Survey.

Dr. B. W. Nelson of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute spent two months in Wyoming making a stratigraphic and mineralogical study of bentonites under the faculty supplementation program of the Gulf Oil Company. His research work on sedimentary processes and geochemistry of the Virginia estuaries has been given renewed support by the American Petroleum Institute and the Chesapeake Corporation of Virginia.

—Bruce W. Nelson, Virginia Polytechnic Institute

Statistics

Dr. Boyd Harshbarger, Head of the Department of Statistics at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute, was chairman of one of the sessions of the Fourth Conference on Design of Experiments at the Quartermaster Re¬ search and Engineering Center, Natick, Massachusetts. This conference was sponsored by the Army Mathematics Steering Committee.

The Department of Statistics of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute was the recent recipient of a grant for $3,500 from the Smith, Kline and French Foundation to support research in biometry.

Dr. Herbert A. David of the Virginia Polvtechnic Institute was appoint¬ ed an associate editor for Biometrics.

Recipients of Ph.D. degrees in Statistics at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute in June, 1958, were as follows: John J. Cart, Robert Riffenburgh, and Willard O. Ash.

Mary B. McCahey, John P, Robinson, and Charles A. Bruce completed

62 The Virginia Journal of Science [January

their work for their Master of Science degree in Statistics at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute; and Leroy S. Brenna completed his work for the Ph.D. degree in Statistics.

The Virginia Academy of Science Chapter of the American Statistical Association and the Richmond Section of the American Society for Quality Control held a joint one day meeting at the Holiday Inn Restaurant near Lynchburg on October 25.

The Statistics Section at the Institute of Textile Technology has been enlarged with the purchase of a Burroughs Electro Data E-IOi-3 electron¬ ic computer, for use in statistical analysis work.

Mr. David Regnery Myers completed his M.S. thesis at the Institute of Textile Technology, under the title: "‘The Influence of Doublings and Draft on the Long-and Short-Term Weight Variations of Sliver and Sub¬ sequently Processed Yarn.” Mr. Meyers is now with Joanna Cotton Mills Company, Joanna, S. C.

Textile Research Journal of July 1958 published a paper by N. L. Enrick of the Institute of Textile Technology, and former Institute Student W. D. Hicks, now with Fieldcrest Mills, Leaksville, N. C. on “Varia¬ tions in Roving Weight Introduced by the Slubber.”

Mill Test Procedures is the title of a new book by N. L. Enrick, pub¬ lished by Rayon Publishing Corporation, based on a series of articles ap¬ pearing in prior issues of Modern Textiles Magazine.

N. L. Enrick attended the Fall Meeting of the American Society for Testing Materials, Committee D-I3, to chair the Task Group on Yarn Imperfection Counters and participate in the work of the statistical group, Subcommittee B-5.

— Clyde Y. Kramer, Virginia Polytechnic Institute

« The Annual Subscription Rate is $3.00, and the cost of a single iiumber, $1.00. Reprints are available only if ordered when galley proof is returned. All orders except those involving exchanges should be addressed to Charles F. Lane, Stevens Hall, Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia. The University of Virginia Library has exclusive exchange arrangements, and communications relative to exchange should be addressed to The Librarian, Alderman Library, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

Notice To Contributors

Contributions to the Journal should be addressed to Robert T. Brumfield, Stevens Hall, Longwood College, Farmville, Virginia. If any preliminary notes have been pub¬ lished on the subject which is submitted to the editors, a statement to that effect must accompany the manuscript.

Manuscripts must be submitted in triplicate, typewritten in double spacing on standard X 11” paper, with at least a one inch margin on all sides. Manuscripts are limited to seven pages, with the proviso that if additional pages are desired, the author may obtain them at cost. The author may estimate the len^h of his paper by counting the total number of characters, including blank spaces, and dividing this by 8300. The result is the approximate number of printed pages in the Journal.

Division of the manuscripts into subheadings must follow a consistent plan, and be held to a minimum. It is desirable that a brief summary be included in all manuscripts.

Footnotes should be included in the body of the manuscript immediately following the reference, and set off by a dashedrline above and below the footnote content. Footnotes should be numbered consecutively from the beginning to the end of the manuscript.

Bibliographies (Literature Cited, References, etc.) should be arranged alphabetically according to author. Each reference should include the date, full title of the article, the name of the Journal, the volume, number (optional), pages, tables and figures (if any). For example: “Sniff en, Ernest W. 1940. Cobbles from the Pleistocene Terraces of the Lower York-James Peninsula Va. Journ. Sci., 1 (8) : 235-288 1 fig., 1 tab. Reference to the bibliographic citations should not be made by numbers. Instead, using the above citations, where a reference is desired: either “Sniffen (1940)”, (Sniffen, 1940: 186)”, or “Sniffen (1940) states that ..."

Explanation of figures, graphs, etc., should be typed on separate pages. All figui*es should be numbered consecutively beginning with the first text figure and continuing through the plates. If figures are to be inserted in the text this should be clearly indicated by writing “Figure — ” at the appropriate place in the margin.

Illustrations including lettering, should be arranged so that on reduction they will not exceed the dimensions of the maximum size of a printed page. 4-1 /2” x 6-1 /2”, and so that they are well balanced on the page. Large plates must be accompanied by 8-1 /2” x 11” photographic copies which can be sent to the reviewers. The Journal will furnish the author with one plate (halftone or line reproduction) or its equivalent; additional figures, colored illustrations or lithographs may be used only if the author makes a grant covering the cost of production. Original drawings (which must be done in black drawing ink) not photographs of drawings, should accompany the manuscript. Photo¬ graphs should not be used if a line and dot (stippled) drawing will suffice. If photo¬ graphic prints are to be used they should be glossy, sharp and show good contrast. Drawings not neatly executed and labeled (do not use a typewriter), or which are sub¬ mitted on yellow or yellowish-white paper will not be accepted.

Galley Proofs and engraver’s proofs of figures are sent to the author for correction. Costs of excessive changes from the original manuscript must be defrayed by the author.

OFFICERS OF THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

John C. Forbes, President William M. Hinton, President-Elect Paul M, Patterson, Secretary Foley F. Smith, Treasurer

William B. Wartman, Jr. Assistant Secretary-Treasurer.

COUNCIL (Board of Trustees)

Edward S. Harlow (1960) Mrs, B. G. Heatwole (1960)

Byron N. Cooper (1958) Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. (1962) Robert T. Brumfield William Hinton (1959) Ralph A. Bradley (1963) Charles F. Lane Thomas E. Gilmer (1961) Walter S. Flory (1959) George W. Jeffers

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

A JOURNAL ISSUED QUARTERLY BY THE VIRGINIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

%

il

jVol. 10, New Series April, 1959 No. 2

i

1

I

1

VoL. 10, New Series April, 1959

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

No. 2

Published Four Times a. Year In January, April, July, and September, by The Virginia Academy of Science

Printed by The Bassett Printing Corporation, Bassett, Virginia

CONTENTS

Pages

Characters Differentiating Common Morning-Glories Occurring in Virginia —

Robert J. Knight, III . . . . ' . . 63 J

A Study of The Chlorophyta of the James River Basin, Virginia —

Bernard Woodson, Jr . 70

News and Notes . 83

Program of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Meeting of the

Virginia Academy of Science . 101

EDITORIAL BOARD

Robert T. Brumfield, Editor Mary E. Humphreys, Associate Editor Charles F. Lane, Managing Editor Lee S. Harrow, Advertising Manager

Carl W. Allen Walter S. Flory, Jr. Robert M. Hubbard Cyril R. Mill

Section Editors

Irving G. Foster Merle A. Kise Bruce W. Nelson Caroline Gambrill

P. Arne Hansen James P. Patton W. Parker Anslow, Jr. C. Y. Kramer

Entered as second-class matter, at the post office at Bassett, Virginia, and Farmville, Virginia, under the Act of March 3, 1897. Subscription $3.00 per volume. Published four times a year: in January, April, July, and September, by the Virginia Academy of Science at Farmville, Va.

Mailed April 6, 1959

THE VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

VoL. 10, New Series April, 1959 No. 2

CHARACTERS DIFFERENTIATING COMMON MORNING-GLORIES OCCURRING IN VIRGINIAi

Robert J. Knight, III"

The Blandij Experimental Farm, Boyce, Virginia

A few species in the Convolvulaceae are numerically abundant in Virginia. These morning-glories and bindweeds are in greatest evidence as seedlings or blooming and maturing plants during tiie warm months of the year. During the course of a study of evolutionary trends in the family, a key was prepared for diagnosing the taxa most common in northern Virginia. It is believed that this may be of use in determining the identity of specimens encountered in the field in most parts of the State. An artificial key is used rather than one based on putative phvlo- genetic relations, because this method appears to the author to be the simplest procedure for rapidly determining identities of living specimens. If the treatment common in Europe were followed (Van Ooststroom, 1938; Hallier, 1893), three species discussed here would be placed in Calijstegia which is not usually given generic standing in North America (Fernald, 1950; Lawrence, 1951; Gleason, 1952). These species are listed here as Convolvulus sepium, C. spithamaeus and C. Ptirshianus Wherry. There seems to be some justification for the European practice when one considers the relative size and position of bracts, and volume of pollen grain in relation to length of style in these three species. Never¬ theless at present and pending additional taxonomic studies of the group, it is believed advisable to follow the usual American procedure and retain them within the genus Convolvulus.

1 The author gratefully acknowledges the counsel and support of Dr. W. S. Flory, Jr., who directed his graduate research at The Blandy Experimental Farm. This paper is a portion of a dissertation submitted to the Universiy of Vii’ginia in partial fulfillment of requirements for the Ph.D. degree.

^ Present address : U.S.D.A. Agricultural Research Service, Crops Research Division, Beltsville, Maryland.

%

SMITHSONIAN

INSTITUTION

APR 1 T 195»

64

The Virginia Journal of Science

[April

1959] Morning Glories in Virginia 65

In southern Virginia near the coast one might occasionally encounter the cypress-vine, Quamoclit pennata (Desr.) Voigt. The cypress-vine itself is not included in the present key because of its comparative rarity when the entire State is considered. This species is unmistakably iden¬ tified by its finely-divided pinnate leaves (fig. 1 f, leaf -blade and coty¬ ledon) and the dark red, star-shaped flowers. White flowers are also known.

On shale foimations in western Virginia and West Virginia, Con¬ volvulus Purshianus Wherry {Calystegia tomentosa Pursh) occurs. This species is readily recognized by the dense silvery tomentum on the leaves. The leaves remain folded together for much of their length, and this makes them appear wilted even when moisture relations are normal.

The annual versus perennial growth habit can be determined by following a given shoot into the soil. In annual species, the cotyledons persist until the plant is quite large; even though the cotyledons may have fallen they leave two prominent, oppositely-oriented scars near the soil line. The true leaves are alternately arranged in morning-glories, and therefore leave no scars directly opposite each other upon falling. Thus a Convolvulaceous plant without visible cotyledons or their scars is im¬ mediately classed as perennial.

The habit of promiscuous rooting from widely proliferating under¬ ground rhizomes affords a useful means of distinguishing Convolvulus from the only perennial Ipomoea occurring throughout Virginia, 1. pandu- rata. The large fleshy taproot of this species may terminate as much as 30 to 40 centimeters below the soil’s surface. Though several shoots may arise from a given root, they can all be traced back to a common point of origin. These shoots are true stems, bearing nodes below ground. They produce no roots above the point of attachment to the taproot.

Within the annual species, the only problem of identification likely to be encountered is that of differentiating Ipomoea purpurea from L hederaeea. It is believed that the accompanying key and the descriptive

Figure I. Outlines of leaf-blades of nine, and cotyledons of five morning-glory species occurring in Virginia: a. leaf-blade of Ipomoea pandurata; b. shoot of Convolvtdus arvensis, bearing 4 leaves; c. leaf- blade of Convolvulus spithamaea; d. leaf-blade of C. sepium; e. leaf- blade and cotyledon of Ipomoea lacunosa; f. leaf-blade and cotyledon of Quamoclit pennata; g. leaf-blade and cotyledon of Q. coccinea; h. leaf- blade and cotyledon of Ipomoea hederaeea; i. leaf -blade and cotyledon of I. purpurea.

66 The Virginia Journal of Science [April

information immediately following it will make this problem less diffieuTt.

A Key to the Morning-glories Common in Virginia

A. Perennial

B. Individual plants arising from single large fleshy taproot, rarely spreading by underground rhizomes . Ipomoea pandurata.

B. Individual clones spreading widely by means of underground rhizomes; roots finely divided, no single large taproot . C

C. Bracts small, inconspicuous, well below the calyx .

Convolvulus arvensis

C. Bracts large, enveloping sepals and later capsule

as it develops . D

D. Erect habit of growth, producing many short stems .

C. spithamaeus.

D. Twining habit of growth . C. sepium.

A. Annual

B. Flowers orange or scarlet, salverform with exserted pistil and

stamens; sepals tapering into long, spurlike projections .

Quamoclit coccinea.

B. Flowers not orange or scarlet, funnelform with included pistil and stamens; calyx without spurlike projections . C

C. Flowers small (1.5 to 2 cm. long by 1 to 2 cm. in diameter), white or pale purple, ovary 2-celled . Ipomoea lacunosa.

C. Flowers larger than above (tube 2.5 cm. or longer, limb 3.0 cm. or more in diameter), blue, purple, red or white; ovary 3-celled . D

D. Flowers blue, never with 5 dark lines in throat, relatively small (tube 2.5 to 5.0 cm., limb 2.5 to 4.0 cm.), leaves usually 3-lobed; ripened ovary never depressed 1. hederacea.

D. Flowers purple, red, blue, or white, almost always with 5 dark lines in throat, relatively large (tube 4.0 to 6.0 cm., limb approximately the same); leaves usually entire, not lobed; ripened ovary almost always depressed J. purpurea.

1. Ipomoea pandurata (L.) G. F. W. Meyer. Leaves cordate to panduriform, glabrous or finely pubescent, with conspicuous dark vein-

1959] Morning Glories in Virginia 67

ing; stems uniformly dark brown to purple; calyx glabrous, fleshy, ad¬ hering closely to base of flower; corolla funnel-shaped, tube from 5 to 8 cm. long, limb of approximately the same width, white; interior of tube maroon; stigma 2-parted; often fails to set seed, thus late in season may exhibit many barren peduncles from which flowers have fallen. Occurs in cultivated fields, along roadsides, in power company rights-of-way and other cleared areas. Blooms in Clarke County from earliest summer to frost. Leaf -blade outline (fig. 1 a).

2. Convolvulus arvensis L. Corolla bell-shaped, small (1.5 to 2.0 cm. long by about same width), white or sometimes pinkish; plant finely pubescent or glabrous, having small, rounded-triangular to conspicuously sagittate leaves, from 2 to 5 cm. long by 2 to 3.5 cm. wide; leaves vary much in shape and size from one clone to another (Brown, 1946); plant generally fine in scale, of a dark grayish-green color. A frequent pest in lawns and gardens, common in moist soil along roadsides and ditchbanks. Blooms, moisture supply permitting, from early summer to frost. Individual clones, isolated, set few if any seed. Outline of shoot with leaves (fig. lb).

3. Convolvulus spithamaeus L. Leaves oblong or slightly narrower at base than middle, pubescent; corolla large, white or pinkish, bell¬ shaped (4 to 7 cm. long by about same width). Common along Skyline Drive in mid-June. Leaf -blade outline (fig. 1 c). [Closely related to this species, if not a form of it, is Convolvulus Purshianus Wherry (Calij- stegia tomentosa Pursh), with persistently conduplicate leaves bearing a thick, silvery pubescence; an inhabitant of shale areas in western Virginia.]

4. Convolvulus sepium L. Entire plant glabrous, of a bright green color; peduncles rectangular in cross-section; leaves large (5 to 10 cm. long by 3 to 7.5 cm. wide), usually triangular or saggittate, with one or two sharply defined angles at the base; veins depressed, giving leaves a reticulate appearance; flowers large (4 to 7 cm. long by about same width), white or pink. Abundant in old cornfields or other areas long in cultivation, often occurring along fencerows. Blooms in Clarke County from the third week in June until frost. Leaf-blade outline (fig. 1 d).

5. Quamoclit coccinea (L.) Moench. Readily determined from color of corolla and, after blooms have faded, by the long spurlike awns which terminate the sepals; ripening and mature ovary depressed; leaves usu¬ ally cordate, entire or very shallowly trilobed, but in form hederifoUa House are deeply 3- to 5-lobed. Immature plants can be distinguished from species of Ipomoea which might be present by the lighter green, almost yellowish cast of the Quamoclit plants, in contrast to the darker green color characteristic of Ipomoea seedlings. Quamoclit coccinea is oc-

68 The Virginia Journal of Science [April

casional in cultivated fields. Blooms in Clarke County from mid- August until frost. Outline of leaf -blade and cotyledon (fig. 1 g).

6. Ipomoea lacunosa L. Flowers inconspicuous, closing early in day, often hidden in foliage; corolla most often white, but may be a pale purple; leaves most often entire, not lobed, but may be shallowly 3-lobed or, rarely, 5-lobed; cotyledons deeply divided, with narrow lobes which flare widely; sepals thin but tough and rigid as opposed to soft, herbace¬ ous calyx of other annual species of Ipomoea. Blooms from late June to October at Blandy Farm. Only white flowers have been observed in Clarke and Warren Counties, but the mauve-colored forma purpurata Fer- nald has been collected in Albemarle County. Outline of leaf-blade and cotyledon (fig. 1 e ).

7. Ipomoea hederacea (L.) Jacquin. Leaves usually 3-lobed in this part of the range, occasionally unlobed or 5-lobed; cotyledon lobes or¬ dinarily not widely flared, but sulcus between lobes is usually relatively deep; entire plant is usually thickly covered with coarse, straw-colored hairs, calyx particularly well supplied with tomentum so that glands though present are not always readily visible; edges of sepals rolled to¬ gether making a cross-section of the portion of the sepal which projects beyond the ovary U- or horseshoe-shaped; rarely exhibits abundant pig¬ ment in stem above cotyledons, and never in abruptly distinct patches; ordinarily no more than 3 flowers to a single peduncle, often only one. An abundant weed in cultivated fields and recently disturbed ground, but appears unable to compete with other plants in sod or woodland. This species has usually finished blooming, and ripened its seed crop well before the first frost in autumn. Outline of the type of leaf-blade most frequently observed and of cotyledon, fig. 1 h.

8. Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth. Leaves usually entire in this part of the range, but may be deeply 3- or 5-lobed; cotyledon lobes never widely flared, and sulcus between lobes is relatively shallow; entire plant is sparsely puberulous, thus glands on calyx usually appear prominent; individual sepals flattened in cross-section, not involute; cross-section of sepal may be cresent-shaped, but is never U- or horseshoe-shaped; stems frequently display long patches of dark purple pigment on the side ex¬ posed to sunlight (even in white-flowered specimens), with an abrupt line of demarcation between pigmented area and the pale green portion of stem that is ordinarily shaded; frequently as many as 5 flowers in one inflorescence. Common weed in fields and gardens, but apparently can¬ not persist in grassland or woods: “Crimson Rambler,” “Rose Marie,” and “Tinkerbell’s Petticoat” are all cultivated forms of this species. Continues to bloom profusely in autumn till frost. Outline of leaf-blade and cotv- ledon, fig. 1 i.

1959]

Morning Glories in Virginia

69

LITERATURE CITED

Brown, E. D. 1946. Notes on some variations in field bindweed {Con¬ volvulus arvensis L.) Iowa State Coll. Jour. Sci. 20: 269-276.

Fernald, M. L. 1950. Gray’s Manual of Botany. Eighth Ed. American Book Co. New York. 1632 pages.

Gleason, H. A. 1952. The New Britton and Brown Illustrated Flora. Vol. 3. New York Botanical Garden. New York. 589 pages.

Hallier, H. 1893. Versuch einer naturlicher Gliederung der Convolvul- aceae. In Engler’s botan. Jahrbucher 16: 453-591.

Lawrence, G. H. M. 1951. Taxonomy of Vascular Plants. Macmillan. New York. 823 pages.

Van Ooststroom, S. J. 1938. The Convolvulaceae of Malaysia, I. Blumea 3: 62-94.

70

The Virginia Journal of Science

[April

A STUDY OF THE CHLOROPHYTA OF THE JAMES RIVER BASIN, VIRGINIA^

I. COLLECTION POINTS AND SPECIES LIST.

Bernard Woodson, Jr.

Virginia State College

Objectives of This Study

This is an investigation of the distribution, elassification and ecology of the Chlorophyta of the James River Basin. The primary objectives of this 'work have been: (1) the collection and identification of green

algae (Chlorophyta) from representative points along the James River Basin; (2) the determination, where possible, of the geological or soil features and chemical factors related to the distribution of Chlorophyta along the James River Basin; and, (3) the assembling of ecological data concerning algal development in the streams concerned in general.

Need for this work was brought to the attention of the writer by his advisor, Dr. G. W. Prescott. R was suggested that since no formal study had been made on the distribution and ecology of green algae in the area covered by this report, that it would be well to make such a survey. Sev¬ eral persons have reported organisms from different points in Virginia, but for the Chlorophyta along the James River Basin it is virgin territory. J. C. Strickland, (1942)^, has made a survey of blue-green algae, H. S. Forest (1954) has presented a check list of algae in the vicinitv of Mountain Lake Biological Station, Virginia, S. L. Meyer (1940) has reported species of Phacus, and Vivian Farlow (1928) has reported on algae of ponds, from tadpole intestine. It was also suggested by Dr. Prescott that the writer try to associate as many factors (ecological, parent rock, soil regions, water chemistry, etc.) with the distribution of the Chlorophyta along the James River Basin as possible. The investiga¬ tion was started during the summer of 1955.

The Present Study — The results of the complete study will be published in several articles. The present article will list in detail the collection points, as well as the 89 species of Chlorophyta encountered.

Methods and Procedure — In order to carry out the major ob¬ jectives of this problem, representative water samples were collected from points along the James River. This was done by taking samples

1 A survey made as partial fulfillment for the requirements for the Ph.D. degree at Michigan State University.

2 Literature citations will appear in a later paper in this series.

1959] Chlorophyta of the James River Basin 71

from tributaries emptying into the James River on both sides making certain that all main streams were represented from headwaters to the mouth of the river.

The distance from origin to mouth of the James is approximately 300 miles, but it was necessary to travel over one thousand miles to make a complete survey of the area studied for each sampling period.

The first collections were made in August of 1955. Samples were taken from both sides of the James making certain that representative samples were taken from each county bordering the river. This was done mainly with the desire of obtaining samples from each parent soil type. As shown by the soils map, many of the counties had the same physiography.

At least two, often many more, samples, however, were taken from streams emptying into the James from each county. This procedure was adhered to as closely as possible, for the winter collection 1955-56 and spring collection 1956. A total of 97 points were sampled by the author, and Dr. Strickland of the University of Richmond contributed 16.

In surveying the tributaries, all macroscopic algal growth were sampled. In many instances soil samples of stream bottoms were collect¬ ed even though there was no definite sign of algal growth. Also samples of twigs, leaves, rocks or other debris were collected for examination. Observations were made as to the speed of the currents of the streams, type of bottom and where possible, the various species or genera of higher plants of the stream and bordering banks. Plankton samples were also obtained from many of the larger bodies of water. The samples were preserved in Transeau’s solution, known as 6-3-1 (6 parts water, 3 parts ethyl alcohol and 1 part commercial formahn).

In the summer of 1956, the author again covered the same distance taking samples of water from the main tributaries for chemical analyses and also taking the pH of the explored streams. The chemical analyses of these waters had already been made by the Department of Conser¬ vation, Division of Water Resources, but phosphorus analyses had been omitted from the data by the Conservation Department of Virginia; therefore, the author made phosphorus determinations using the ‘‘Molyb¬ date Colorimeter Method.”

The materials collected were examined in the laboratory and the species found in each collection were recorded. A drawing of each species observed was made with the camera lucida.

72

The Virginia Journal of Science

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[April

40 Deep Creek, Rt. 60, Cumberland Co. Slow and muddy None

41 Falling Creek, Rt. 60, Chesterfield Co. Fairly swift, mucky None

42 Appomattox River, Petersburg, Va. Fairly swift, rocky None

and polluted

44 Swift Creek, Rt. 1, Chesterfield Co. Swift and rocky Veronica sp.

45 Appomattox River, Two mi. above Quite swift and rocky None, seemed polluted.

Petersburg in Chesterfield Co.

46 Swift Creek, Rt. 602, Chesterfield Co. Fairly swift and rocky None, algae on rocks

and soil

47 David Creek, Rt. 60, Appomattox Co. Fairly swift, slate rock None, Algae on rocks

.1959]

Chlorophyta of tbpe James R,iver Basin

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58 Mills Creek, Rt. 220, Botetourte Co. Swiftly flowing, rocky None, seemed polluted.

59 Sinking Creek, Rt. 220, Botetourte Co. Slow flowing with None, algae on rocks

shale bottom

76

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70 Temporary Pool — Huguenot Bridge Chesterfield Co.

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73 Swamp, 10 miles west of Richmond,

77

1959]

Chlorophyta of the James River Basin

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78

The Virginia Journal of Science

[April

TAXONOMIC LIST

(Numbers in parenthesis refer to collection points as listed above.) Division Chlorophyta Class Chlorophyceae Order Volvocales

Family Volvocaceae

Pandorina morum Bory (69)

Eiidorina elegans Ehr. (13) (72)

Order Tetrasporales Family Palmellaceae

Gloeocijstis gigas (Kutz) Lagerh (30) (52)

Tetraspora luhrica (Roth) Agardh (14) (15) (16) (28) (29) (45)

Family Coccomyxaceae

Dispora crucigenioides Printz (65)

Coccomyxa dispar Schmidle (71)

Order Ulothrichales

Family Ulotrichaceae

Ulothrix tenerrima Kutz (11) (12) (27)

U. zonata (Weber and Mohr) Kutz (4) (22) (23) (53) (64)

Family Trentepohliaceae

Lochmium piluliferum Printz (57)

Order Microsporales Family Microsporaceae

Microspora amoena (Kutz.) Rab. (4) (6) (16) (17)

M. Willeana Lagerheim and Detoni (12)

Order Chaetophorales

Family Chaetophoraceae

Stigeoclonium stagnatile (Hazen) Collins (34)

S. subseciindum Keutzing (1) (10) (11) (12) (15) (69) Chaetophora elegans (Roth) Agardh (15) (22) (42)

1959]

79

Chlorophyta of the James River Basin

C. incrassata (Hads.) Hazen (73)

Draparnaldia glomerata (Vauch.) Agardh (72)

D. platijzonata Hazen (3) (44) (45) (73)

D. plumosa (Vauch.) Agardh (22) (42) (62) (66) (69) (72)

Order Cladphorales

Family Cladophoraceae

Cladophora callicoma. Keutz (21)

C. insignis Keutz (54) (64)

Pithophora keioensis Wittr. (42)

Rhizocloniiirn hieroglyphicum (Ag.) Kutz (20) (32) (35) (42) (74)

Order Ulvales Family Ulvaceae

Enteromorpha prolifera (FI. Dan.) Agardh (24)

Ulva lactuca Linn. (23)

Order Oedogoniales Family Oedogoniaceae

Oedogonum echinospermum Braun and Keutz (6)

Oe. minor Witt. (13)

Order Chlorococcales Family Hydrodictyaceae

Hydrodictyon reticidatiim (L) Lager. (74)

Pediastrum duplex — var clathratum (Braun) Lagerh. (13) (20) var. reticidatum Lagerh. (20)

P. integrum Naegeli (20)

P. simplex (Meyen) Lemmer (61)

Family Coelastraceae

Coelastrum camhricum Archer (46)

Family Oocystaceae

Eremosphaera viridis DeBary (24)

Family Scenedesmaceae

Scenedesmus quadricauda (Turp.) Breb. (22) (46)

80

[April

The Virginia Journal of Science Order Zygnematales Family Zygnemataceae

Spirogyra aplansopora Rand. (69)

Sp. cleaveana Trans. (3) (69)

Sp. communis (Hass.) Keutz Sp. crassa Keutz. (5) (34) (36)

Sp. denticiilata Trans. (15)

Sp. insignis (Hass.) Keutz (42)

Sp. mirabilis (Hass.) Keutz (69)

Sp. protecta (2)

Sp. semiornata Jac. (69)

Zijgnema insigne (Hass.) Keutz (71)

Family Desmidiaceae

Closterium acerostim (Schrank) Ehren. (42)

Cl. abruptum var. africanum (West) Kreiger (19) (46)

Cl. Dianae Ehren. (6) (16)

Cl. didymotocum Rails. (40)

Cl. Leibleinii Keutz. (6) (69)

Cl. Morale Gay (38) (46) (48) (53)

Cl. moniUforme (Rory) Ehren. (2) (6) (19) (33) (38) (41) (46) (52) (61) (64) (68)

Cl. Frit char dianum Archer (1) (52) (71)

Cl. praelongum Brab (46)

Cl. rostratum Ehren. (40) (46)

Cl. tumidum Johnson (40) (48) (62) (65)

Cl. tumidulum (40)

Cosmarium formosuliim var. nathorastii (Boldst.) W. & W. (40) (54) (56)

Cos. fomosuliim Boldst. (54) (56) (57)

Cos. meneghini Breb. (46) (57) (71)

Cos. margaritatum (Lund). Roy & Bliss (59)

Cos. pseudoconnatum Nordst. (40) (58) (59)

Cos. pseudopyramidatum (58)

Cos. punctulatum var. subpunctulatum (Nordst.) Berg. (4) (33) (48) (58) (68)

Cos. suhreniforme Nordst. (40)

1959]

81

Chlorophyta of the James River Basin

Cylindrocystis diplospora Lund. (71)

Desmidium Bailey i (Rails.) Nordst (59)

D. Swartzii Agardh. (6) (7) (16) (57) (59)

Euastnim verrucosum var. alatum Wolle (6)

Hyalotheca dissiliens (J. E. Smith) Breb. (3) (15) (28) (38) (39) (45) (57) (59) (71)

Hy. mucosa (Dillw.) Ehren. (22)

Micrasterias americana (Ehren.) Ralls. (6)

M. sol. (Ehren.) Keutz (6) (39)

M. truncata (Corda) Breb. (57) (58)

Penium margaritaceum (Ehren.) Breb. (1) (33) (64) Pleurotaenium cylindricum Ralls. (6) (39)

Pi. Ehrenbergii (Breb.) DeBary (59)

Staurastrum alternans Breb. (17) (38) (48) (65)

Str. Brebissonii Archer (13)

Str. Dickei Ralls.

Str. gracile Ralls. (22)

Str. orbiculare var. hibernicum West and West (57)

Str. punctulatum Breb. (66)

Class Charophyceae Order Charales

Family Characeae Tribe Nitelleae

Nitella opaca Agardh. (18)

Tribe Chareae

Chara Braunii Gmelin (64)

C. fragilis Desv. and Loisel. (57) (63) (61)

Division Euglenophyta Class Euglenophyceae Order Euglenales

Family Euglenaceae

Euglena Spirogyra Ehren. (65)

Division Chrysophyta

Class Xanthophyceae i

82

[April

The Virginia Journal of Science Order Heterosiphonales

Family Vaucheriaceae

Vaucheria aversa Hass. (15) (19) (69)

V. discoidea Taft. (33) (72)

V. geminata (Vauch.) DeCand. (30) (42)

V. sessilis (Vauch.) DeCand. (14)

Division Rhodophyta Class Rhodophyceae Subclass Florideae Order Nemalionales

Family Batrachospermaceae

Batrachospermum virgatum (Kuetz.) Sin. (4) (9) (16) (17) (18) (19) (26) (28) (29) (34)

Subclass Bangiodes Order Ceramiales

Family Ceramiaceae

Ceramium ruhrum (Huds.) C. Ag. (23)

Family Erythrotrichiaceae

Compsopogon coeruleus (Balbis) Mont. (5)

Although this is an investigation of the Chlorophyta, the author has included in the Taxonomic list several species of Rhodophyta and Chry- sophyta. These species were included because some appeared quite fre¬ quently in collections, and it was thought that these forms may be of interest to some biologist.

1959]

News and Notes

83

News And Notes

(Editors Note: News contributions should be sent to the person whose name appears at the end of the appropriate sections.)

MINUTES OF THE COUNCIL MEETING Longwood House — October 19, 1958

The Council of the Virginia Academy of Science, together with Committee and Section representatives, met at Longwood House in Farmville, president Forbes presiding.

Council members present were as follows: Ralph A. Bradley, Robert T. Brumfield, Walter S, Flory, Jr., William G. Guy, William M. Hinton, Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., George W. Jeffers, Harry G. M. Jopson, Charles F. Lane, Paul M. Patterson, and Foley F. Smith.

Those representing Committees and Sections were as follows: Sections:

Franklin D. Kizer, Science Teachers.

B. A. Niemeier, Engineering S. S. Obenshain, Agricidtural Science W. T. Parrott, Geology William W. Scott, Biology

Jackson J. Taylor, Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics Frank A. Vingiello, Chemistry

Committees:

L. D. Abbott, Jr., Business Memberships

I. G. Foster, History of Science

Boyd Harshbarger, Institute for Prospective College Seniors and Their College Teachers

J. C. Holmes, Science Talent Search

S. P. Maroney, Jr., Arrangements for 1959 Sydney S. Negus, Awards Nolan E. Rice, Resolutions

Since the minutes had been circulated a motion was passed to dis¬ pense with the reading.

84 The Virginia Journal of Science [April

The subject of the James River Basin Association tabled at the last meeting was left tabled.

Dr. Harshbarger reported on his conference concerning raising money for an Institute for the Exceptional College Students in the Sciences. It appeared that the National Science Foundation might be interested in this. After considerable discussion the following motion was formulated for Dr. Negus and passed:

That Council accepts and approves the report of The Science Con¬ ference Committee of which Dr. Harshbarger is Chairman and directs this Committee to continue their work towards inauguration of this plan with the approval of The Virginia Academy of Sciences. The President is authorized to sign the application for the Academy.

Mr. Foley Smith reported on sales of the River Basin” and

reprints of the Journal Issue for The Jamestown Festival. Mr. Smith mov¬ ed that the Committee on James River Project be dissolved. This motion was passed. Future sales of this book, however, would be credited as be¬ fore.

Mr. Maroney brought up several problems that faced his Planning Committee. One concerned rental that would be charged for use of the Student’s Activities Building. Council passed Dr. Flory’s motion to the effect that his Committee may use Academy funds for this purpose up to $400 as they see fit.

Mr. Maroney brought up the question of a tea in the Rotunda. Opinion was somewhat divided but Council approved a tea for May, 8, 1959 at 5-6 p.m.

Dr. Forbes called attention to a letter from A. T. McPherson, Presi¬ dent of the District Academy over possible conflict with their Junior Aeademy and ours in the adjoining Virginia territory where they are aetive. Couneil would foresee no conflict and designated President Forbes to reply.

Dr. Jackson Taylor pointed out that there was sentiment among the mathematicians to form an independent Section. He was advised that this is the wishes of the group and is always accepted by the Academy on a two year trial basis as indicated in Article 9 Sections 1 and 2 of the Constitution.

Dr. Bradley formulated a proeedural basis for awarding research funds which he plans to publish in the Journal. Council listened with comments which centered chiefly around the eligibility clauses for awards, but reminded him that his Committee was autonomous.

News and Notes

85

1959]

Mr. Lane pointed out that the printing contract for the Journal would soon expire and a new one should be negotiated. Dr. Flory moved that the Editor and Business Manager of the Journal be empowered to do so. This motion was passed.

Dr. Negus reported the Awards Committee had nominated Lloyd C. Bird for the Distinguished Service Award. Dr. Flory put this in the form of a motion and Council approved the nomination unanimously.

Dr. Guy made, and Council passed, a motion that Dr. N. F. Murphy be commended for the outstanding job he did in obtaining commercial exhibits at the 1958 Roanoke meeting.

The President reported that R. W. Engel was appointed to the Re¬ search Committee for two years, because of C. L. Gemmill’s resignation, and would become Chairman at GemmilFs rotational year (Engle’s sec¬ ond) in order to preserve the sequential continuity of this Committee.

President-elect Hinton reported Ed Berkeley is Chairman of the Local Arrangements Committee for the 1960 meeting in Richmond with Jefferson Hotel as headquarters. The Academy speaker, he said, would be Harry Harlow, a student of primates. Adjournment.

Paul M. Patterson, Secretary.

American Tobacco Company

Dr. William R. Harlan, Managing Director, Department of Re¬ search and Development, The American Tobacco Company, announced the appointment of two supervisors in the Quality Control and Improve¬ ment of Products Division. Oswald N. Coty has been named Supervisor of Essential Materials and Ralph R. Chesson, Supervisor of Tobacco Control.

The following personnel changes at the Research Laboratories of The American Tobacco Company were announced by H. R. Hanmer, Vice President, Research Department: William R. Harlan, formerly As¬ sistant Director of Research was named Managing Director, Research and Development. He received his B. S. degree from New Mexico State University and his Doctor’s degree in Plant Chemistry from Iowa State College.

Edward S. Harlow was appointed Assistant Managing Director, Re¬ search and Alexander W. Schoenbaum, Assistant Managing Director, Development. Both Mr. Harlow and Mr. Shoenbaum are natives of Richmond, Virginia and are graduates of the University of Richmond.

86

The Virginia Journal of Science [April

Other appointments, aeeording to the Vice President, were as fol¬ lows: John M. Moseley, Assistant to Vice President and to Managing Director, Research and Development; Overton L. Hillsman, Executive Assistant; Claiborne E. Brogden, Assistant to Managing Director, Re¬ search and Development; Blanton M. Bruner, Assistant to Managing Director, Research and Development; Clarence H. Rayburn, Supervisor of Research; John T. Ashworth, Supervisor of Development.

Agricultural Sciences

Dr. C. J. Ackerman of the Department of Biochemistry and Nutri¬ tion, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, participated recently in a conference called by the National Research Council, Washington, D. C., to con¬ sider the use of ethylene oxide gas as a sterilizing agent for human blood plasma. Dr. Ackerman’s advice was sought because of his recent researches on the effect of the sterilizing gas on the nutritional value of proteins.

W. W. Osborne, Associate Extension Plant Pathologist, Virginia Polvtechnic Institute, has been granted two years educational leave to work on his Ph. D. degree in plant pathologv. Dr. Robert Pristou is sub¬ stituting for Mr. Osborne during his leave.

The Department of Vocational Education, Virginia Polvtechnic In¬ stitute, cooperating with the State Department of Education and the teachers of vocational agriculture, has just completed a follow-up study of approximately 71,000 former students of vocational agriculture. The chief purpose of the study was to answer the question: What becomes of boys who study vocational agriculture in the high school? Copies of the study are available from the Department of Vocational Education.

The National Science Eoundation has announced that Dr. M. D. Lane, Associate Professor of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Virginia Polv¬ technic Institute has been awarded a three-year grant in the amount of $17,200.00 for the study of the metabolism of fattv acids by animal tissues.

The National Institute of Health has awarded a sum of $25,530.00 to support basic agricultural research at the Virginia Polvtechnic Institute under the direction of Dr. K. W. King in the Department of Biochemist¬ ry of Biochemistry and Nutrition. Approximately half of the funds will be used for graduate assistantships. The research is an attempt to learn the details of how bacteria and fungi decompose cellulose. Understanding of the process is intended to lead to ways of improving cattle and sheep nutrition, maintenance of soil fertility, sewage disposal, and cotton fabric preservation.

News and Notes

87

1959]

Dr. R. W. Engel, Head of die Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition at Virginia Polytechnic Institute has been appointed to the Editorial Board of the newly-created scientific journal, Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology .

Need for the journal arose from the rapid postwar increase in the use of new chemicals in drugs, cosmetics, food processing, and agricul¬ ture. Protection of the public from unsuspected toxic effects of the new chemicals can only be assured by extensive research to establish their safety prior to commercial use. The Journal of Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology will serve the scientific world as a means of reporting the results of such research.

James F. Eheart, Associate Professor of Biochemistrv, Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute attended a National Pesticide Residue Conference at Washington, D. C., in January. This meeting was sponsored by the U.S. D.A. and the Federal Food and Drug Administration.

Mr. Robert K. Reynolds has been appointed Assistant Extension Agricultural Economist, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, to work in Farm Management. Mr. Reynolds holds a B. S. degree from Virginia Polytech¬ nic Institute and is now working part-time on his M. S. degree. He served for a period of two years with the Virginia Agricultural Extension Service.

— Carl W. Allen

Chemistry

A new Infra-Cord has just been installed in the physical chemistry laboratorv at Virginia Military Institute. The cost of the instrument was partiallv met by a grant of $2500 from the Hercules Power Company.

A new lecture room at the Institute, seating 250, is nearing com¬ pletion and will be ready for occupancy about March 1.

New instructors added to the Virginia Military Institute staff include: Mr. John Borders of Wake Forest, Lt. William Corr, Lt. Theron Henry and Lt. William Sink of Virginia Militarv Institute.

— M. A. Kise

Engineering

Professors Fred W. Bull and Nelson F. Murphy of the Chemical Engineering Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, attended the annual meeting of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers held in Cincinnati, Ohio in December. Professor Bull has announced the ap¬ pointment of Dr. Stuart B. Row as Professor of Chemical Engineeiing.

88

The Virginia Journal of Science [April

Dr. Row received his B. S. and M. S. degrees from die Virginia Poly¬ technic Institute and his Ph.D. from Ohio State University. Formerly he taught at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and at Southwestern Louis¬ iana Institute of Technology. He has most recently been employed by the American Viscose Company and O’Sullivan Rubber Company. Professor Bull has announced that the Chemical Engineering Department will move into its new building during the summer of 1959. This new facility will provide expanded space for research, instruction and offices. In addition to general laboratory space, special laboratories will be provided for instrumentation, corrosion, electrochemical processes, and nuclear chemi¬ cal engineering. U. S. Patent Number 2,848,396 covering an electro¬ chemical method for preparing boron from fused salt mixtures has been issued to Professor Nelson E. Murphy and Dr. Richard S. Tinsley, now with Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation, Hopewell, Virginia.

Mr. Tilton E. Shelburne of the Virginia Council for Highway In¬ vestigation and Research, attended the annual meeting of the Highway Research Board in Washington in January. He presented two papers: “Resume of the First International Skid Prevention Conference” and “Review of Laboratory and Field Methods of Measuring Road Surface Friction.” As a director from District Six of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Mr. Shelburne attended the annual meeting of the Pittsburgh Section in January. In February he traveled to Los Angeles to . attend the meeting of the National Board of Directors of the ASCE.

Dean Lawrence R. Quarles of the School of Engineering, University of Virginia, attended the meeting of the American Nuclear Society in Detroit in December. He is a member of the Board of Directors and is Chairman of the Education Committee. Dr. Orville R. Harris of the Elec¬ trical Engineering Department, University of Virginia, has been elected Vice-Chairman of the Virginia Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.

Professors Otis L. Updike and Robert M. Hubbard of the Chemical Engineering Department, University of Virginia, attended the annual meeting of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers in Cincinnati in December. Dr. Updike presented a paper “The Laboratory Period in the Process Control Course.” Dr. Updike has been awarded a National Seience Foundation Seience Faculty Fellowship for the academic year 1959-1960. He will study at California Institute of Teehnology. Pro¬ fessor Hubbard has been elected Vice-Chairman of the Central Virginia Section of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers.

— Robert M. Hubbard

1959]

News and Notes

89

Geology

Dr. Edgar W. Spencer has been named Associate Professor of Geo¬ logy and Chairman of the Department at Washington and Lee University.

The Washington and Lee faculty will be increased to three mem¬ bers in 1960. The present faculty has added to the geology curriculum courses in paleontology, stratigraphy and sedimentation, field methods, and basic geological concepts and has adopted a new set of major re¬ quirements for geology majors.

— Bruce W. Nelson

Psychology

A recent addition to the Psychology Department, College of William and Marv is E. Rae Harcum, Assistant Professor. Dr. Harcum, whose cur¬ rent field of interest is in visual perception, earned his B. S. at William and Mary, 1950; M. A. at Johns Hopkins, 1952; Ph.D. at University of Michigan, 1955. He is taking the place of John K. Bare who accepted the chairmanship of Psychology Department at Carleton College. Charles R. Havward of Harvard College and Brown Universitv has also joined the staff. Mr. Hayward is interested in information theorv and Skinnerian be¬ haviorism.

Frank A. Geldard chaired a symposium on “The Human As a Measur¬ ing Instrument” at the AAAS meetings in Washington on December 28. Professor Geldard was elected Chairman of Section I (Psychologv) and was also elected Vice-President of the AAAS.

Frank W. Finger participated in the Miami Conference on Graduate Education in Psychology, attended by 120 psychologists of various affilia¬ tions, from November 29 to December 7. Among the noteworthy view¬ points aired at the conference was the following: An attempt to minimize the distinction between science and profession, stressing that all psycho¬ logists should have a primary orientation toward investigation with a secondary interest in service. Since it is impossible to anticipate precisely the directions in which Psychology will develop, the preeminent goal of graduate education must be to foster flexibility and continuing growth in the individual. General principles might be emphasized more than specialized techniques, leaving the latter to post-doctoral experience; in any case, graduate departments are to be encouraged to experiment free¬ ly, albeit responsibility, with a variety of programs. The demand for psychological services will exceed the supply available at the Ph.D. level, so more attention ought to be given to the problems of training and

90 The Virginia Journal of Science [April

utilization of non-doctoral personnel. In order to attract a fair share of the manpower pool into Psychology, it seems desirable to introduce the concept of Psychology as a research discipline into the secondary school curriculum, and it is imperative that positive steps be taken to invigorate the teaching of Psychology at the college level.

John F. Hurley announces that the staff of School Psychologists of Fairfax County has completed the first year of a study “Comparative Effectiveness of Four Basal Reading Series” in which the primary read¬ ing programs of four publishers were compared on equated groups under controlled conditions. This work, which will continue for another year, is part of a larger project in which the series of six additional publishers is being evaluated. The staff, which includes Robert Lanagan, Gloria Mc¬ Dowell, Catherine Murphy, and Richard Schillo, have also made a com¬ parative study of two achievement tests, the California and the Stanford, and have conducted a controlled evaluation of a half-day versus a full- day program for first grade children.

John F. Hahn read an invited paper, “Communieating Via The Skin” at the meetings of the Speech Association of America in Chicago on December 29.

Reuben S. Horlock, formerly Chief Clinical Psychologist, Audiology and Speech Center, Walter Reed Army Hospital, has been appointed Chief, Psychological Services Center, Department of Corrections, District of Columbia. He will be responsible for designing, developing and ad¬ ministering a psychological treatment and research program for a selected inmate population at the District of Columbia Reformatorv.

Antania Bell Morgan delivered a paper at the AAAS meetings in Washington in December on “Critical Factors in the Aeceleration of Gifted Children; A Follow-up Study.”

The Division of Behavioral Science, Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, University of Virginia School of Medicine announces its first Annual Symposium, “Experimental Foundations of Clinical Psychologv,” to be held at Charlottesville, Virginia, April 1 and 2, 1959. The members of the Symposium are Janet A. Taylor, Northwestern University, Robert B. Malmo, McGill University, Murray Sidman, Walter Reed Armv In¬ stitute of Research, Irwin A. Berg, Louisiana State Universitv, Jack A. Vernon, Princeton University, and John H. Weakland, Veterans Adminis¬ tration Hospital, Palo Alto, California. The Symposium will be under the chairmanship of Arthur J. Bachrach, University of Virginia. Information pertaining to attendance may be obtained by writing to Mrs. Katherine Tiffany, Secretary, Division of Behavioral Science, Universitv of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia.

News and Notes

91

1959]

A workshop in “Play-Group Therapy” will be conducted by Haim G. Ginott, psychologist from the Ghild Guidance Glinic in Jacksonville, Florida, on April 9-12 in Richmond under the sponsorship of the State Department of Mental Hygiene and Hospitals.

- Gyril R. Mill

Gurrent Academic Psychological Research in Virginia on Theoretical and Applied Issues

The geographical and institutional section of the American Psycholo¬ gical Association 1958 Directory lists some 70 psychologists participating in the activities of 20 colleges and universities throughout Virginia. The training of these persons was such that 43 of them hold the Ph.D. degree, conferred in years ranging from 1918-1957, with modal date being 1952. It may be inferred, then, that those awarded these degrees are a rela¬ tively voung group of scientists with the pleasant addition of a few older heads. Of the total population, 18 hold the Master’s degree. The re¬ mainder of the population consists of doctorates in education, largely, and law; three persons carry the Bachelor’s degree as their highest earned diploma and one listed no degree. Virginia’s psychologists are seen gene¬ rally to be well qualified to do research work.

In order to ascertain the nature of psychological research in pro¬ gress or in preparation, letters were mailed to each of the 70 psycholo¬ gists. They were requested to send an abstract of each research project familiar to them, as well as the names of the principal investigators. The inclusion of some words regarding the theoretical or practical value of the project as well as the research design, was encouraged. After the lapse of a month a second and less demanding letter was addressed to all who had not yet responded. In this way replies were received from 33 psychologists representing 17 colleges and universities. Ten of the res¬ pondents indicated they were neither engaged in research, nor were thev contemplating any. Six of these people held Master’s degrees, three had doctorates in philosophy, and one listed no degree. Fortunately, many of those answering included information regarding the research projects of colleagues on the original list. Hence, information arriving in time for inclusion in the present report represented the research efforts of 61 ac¬ credited psychologists in 17 of the Old Dominion’s academic institutions.

Psychological research may be roughly divided into three parts, clinical, theoretical, and applied. The present paper deals only with what the writer considered to be theoretical or applied experiments. Al¬ though clinical findings are not included in this report, it may be inter¬ esting to note that petulant correspondence was received exclusively

92

The Virginia Journal of Science [April

from those mostly engaged in theoretical investigations. Thus, the clini¬ cians submitted their summaries with bland covering letters. Several of the theoreticians, however, responded that they did not have time to comply fully with the request. One offered “a program of college admin¬ istration that is quite demanding,” another noted that the difficulties of an adequate response were increased “by uncertain definition of Tesearch project.’ ” It was the experimentalists too who presupposed sapience in the present writer. For example, one brief but detailed report, involving several years of work, a dozen or so papers, and a brace of investigators, concluded by stating, “Of course, you are familiar with their general objectives ...”

The general objectives of ongoing and recent experimental, psychologi¬ cal research in academic Vii'ginia are presented herewith.

Learning Studies: Reinforcements

The first of a series of experimental studies in the area of automa¬ tion of learning is shortly to be completed by Diehl and Kent at Bridge- water College under a grant from the Virginia Academy of Science. This investigation is concerned with an examination of the relative effective¬ ness of learning nonsense syllables by machine presentation using various methods such as paired associates, anticipation, multiple choice, and written recitation. Depending upon the outcome of the first experiment on the effects of immediate reinforcement on rote memorization at the college level, later studies on foreign languages, organic chemistry, and biology will be undertaken.

Woods is investigating the effects of motivation and probability of reward on two-choice learning at Hollins College. Three experimental conditions involve motivation in the form of an aversive auditory stimulus, correction and noncorrection procedure, and a schedule of contigent reward. When the acquisition data were analyzed in the context of Es¬ tes’ statistical learning theory, the main effect was found to be due to the probability of reward. A report of the experiment has been accepted for publication in the Journal of Experimental Psychology. Another manu¬ script soon to appear in that journal presents the relationship between probility difference and learning rate in a contigent partial reinforcement. In that experiment Woods found rate of learning to be directly related to probability difference.

Ogdon and Lebo, of the Richmond Professional Institute, have completed an interesting study of reward involving throwing darts at a genuine British pub dart board. It was their hypothesis, based on the goal-gradient theory, that more force would be exerted on dart throws

1959]

News and Notes

93

when subject had the opportunity to triple their raw score. Although experimenters and subjects alike enjoyed the experience, analysis of the graphic records has failed to support the hypothesis.

A variation of the effect of discrimination training conditions on secondary reinforcement is being examined experimentally at Hollins College by McGuigan.

Research